...  . 


* 


Stair-Building  Made  Easy, 

BEING    A   FULL   AND    CLEAR   DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   ART   OF 

BUILDING  THE  BODIES,  CARRIAGES  AND  CASES 
FOR  ALL  KINDS  OF  STAIRS  AND  STEPS. 

TOGETHER   WITH   ILLUSTRATIONS    SHOWING   THE   MANNER  OF 

LAYING  OUT  STAIRS,  FORMING  TREADS  AND  RISERS,  BUILDING  CYLINDERS, 

PREPARING  STRINGS,  WITH  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  MAKING  CARRIAGES 

FOR  COMMON,  PLATFORM,  DOG-LEGGED  AND  WINDING  STAIRS. 


TO  WHICH    IS   ADDED 


An  Illustrated  Glossary  of  Terms  used  in  Stair-Building,  and  Designs  for  Newels, 
Balusters,  Brackets,  Stair-Mouldings  and  Sections  of  Hand-Rails. 


FRED.    T.  HODGSON, 

EDITOR    OF     "THE  BUILDER  AND  WOOD-WORKER";    AUTHOR    OF     "THE  CARPEN- 
'S  STEEL  SQUARE,    AND  ITS  USES,"   ETC.,    ETC. 


NBV7    YORK: 
THE    INDUSTRIAL    PUBLICATION    COMPANY. 

1684. 


[REFUGE 


Many  books  have  been  written  on  Stairs  and  Hand-Hailing,  but  so  far  as 
ray  experience  extends,  one  of  two  objections  has  prevented  them  from 
being  universally  adopted  by  the  operative  workman. 

First,  the  books  have  been  written  by  men  who  did  not  seem  to  think 
it  necessary  to  begin  at  the  beginning,  and  first  teach  the  young  workman 
how  to  build  a  stair  of  the  humblest  sort,  and  thus  lead  him,  step  by  step, 
until  he  became  able,  by  gradual  and  natural  acquirement,  to  erect  and  com- 
plete stairs  of  a  better  description.  This  objection,  I  have  found,  by  close 
observation  and  a  knowledge  of  the  wants  of  young  workmen,  to  be  fatal 
to  the  large  sale  of  any  work  published  on  the  subject ;  and  though  I  am 
fully  aware  that  to  the  workman  who  has,  from  practical  experience 
in  the  workshop  or  in  the  building,  obtained  a  fair  knowledge  of  stair-build- 
ing and  hand-railing,  some  one  or  other  of  the  many  excellent  works  now 
obtainable  is  a  necessity,  and  it  is  not  intended  that  this  work  will  replace 
the  more  advanced  ones.  Tot,  I  think,  that  even  the  advanced  stair- 
I  milder  will  be  able  to  find  something  here  that  will  more  than  repay  for 
the  cost. 

The  second  objection  I  have  met  with  to  the  books  on  this  subject  now 
in  the  market,  is  their  high  price.  Young  and  struggling  workmen  cannot 
atTnrd  to  pay  fancy  prices  for  books  they  do  not  understand.  GOULD'S 
AMERICAN  STAIR-BUILDER,  which  is  the  lowest  priced  book  on  the  subject 
published  in  this  country,  costs  $3.00;  while  MONCKTON'S  NATIONAL  STATR- 
BFILDER  costs  $5.00,  and  RIDDELL'S  UNIVERSAL  STAIR-BUILDER  costs 
$7.50;  and  so  it  is  with  CUPPER,  DEGRAFF,  LOTH  and  other  works.  Doubt- 
It  -s.  these  books,  every  one  of  them,  are  worth  the  money  asked  for  them, 


rv  PKEFACE. 

and  the  advanced  workman  wouid  not  bo  witliout  a  copy  of  one  or  the  other 
of  them  if  he  had  to  pay  double  the  market  price ;  but  while  these  books  may 
be  invaluable  to  the  advanced  stair-builder,  they  are  not  at  all  adapted  to 
the  wants  of  the  uninitiated ;  and  are  as  much  out  of  place  on  the  shelves 
of  the  young  apprentice  as  a  learned  treatise  on  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel 
would  be  in  the  hands  of  a  child  struggling  with  alphabetical  word- 
making. 

I  have  tried  to  avoid  both  the  objections  mentioned ;  first,  by  presuming 
that  the  reader  knows  nothing  about  the  art  of  stair-building  when  he  buys 
this  book,  and  must  necessarily  commence  at  the  beginning,  and  work  his 
way  up;  second,  by  keeping  the  cost  of  the  book  down  to  such  a  price  that 
the  poorest  apprentice  boy  may  be  able  to  procure  it. 

This  book  will  be  followed  by  another  on  the  same  subject,  one  that 
will  begin  where  this  leaves  off,  thus  enabling  the  student  to  pursue  the 
subject  to  its  highest  domain.  Of  course,  it  is  intended  that  each  work  will 
be  complete  in  itself,  and  that  both  works  will  cover  the  whole  ground  of 
Stair-Building  and  Hand-Bailing. 

FEED.  T.  HODGSON. 

New  York,  November  1,  1884. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Preliminary,        -  

Use  of  Terms,  -  -  . 

Introduction,        -._  ---.. 

General  Directions,  -----_. 

Stairs  Generally, 

Staircases,      ------___ 

Treads,      ....  

Risers, 

Rise  and  Run, 

Strings  Generally, 

Flights,  Filers  and  Landings.    -  -  -  -  . 

Winders.  Spaces  and  Nosings. 

Cylinders.  Newels  and  Balusters,         -.-... 

Method  of  Setting  Out  Stairs,        ---... 

Consecutive  Flights, 

Rules  for  Laying  Out  Strings,        -  20 

Graphical  Method  of  Laying  Out  SI  airs.  -  -  -  -  22 

Layinir  Out  Stairs  by  Figures,        --.___  23 

Plans  of  Stairs, 23 

Pitch-Boards, 25 

Fenced  Pitch-boards       ---..._.  20 

(1MB  Of  Pitch-board, 27 

Method  i.rrslng  Pilch-board, 27 

Cunstnirlion  of  Steps,        ---_.._  29 

Another  Method  of  Same.          ..         ~.  .....         JQ 

French,  German.  Italian.  English  and  American  Method-       -  -  31 

Line  of  Nosiiiirs. 31 

Sflieme  for  si  rings.  -  -  ...  33 

Ilnii<iiiM-   Mriiiir*.  --------34 


VI  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

PAG6. 

Placing  Balusters,    --------  3.1 

Finishing  Ends  of  Wall-Strings,           ....  -           36 

Trimmers  and  Joists,          ------- 

Finishing  Cut  Strings,    -  38 

Lower  Newel  Finish,  38 

Top  Finish  of  Cut  String,  39 

Well-Hole  Finish,     -          -  40 

Three-Neweled  Stairs,    -  41 

Straight  Platform  Stairs,    -  41 

Planning  Stairs,  -----  42 

Dog-Legged  Stairs, 

Stairs  with  Four  Newels,  45 

Close-String  Stairs,  40 

Continuous  Stairs,          ...          -  48 

Geometrical  Stairs,  49 

Carriages  of  Stairs,         -  -           53 

Balancing  Steps,       -----  54 

Story  Rod,  55 

Dancing  the  Treads,  56 

How  Tliis  is  Done,           -  57 

Double  Platform  Stairs,      -  57 

Straight  Flights  and  Winders,  58 

Cylinder— How  Made,  <::! 

Elliptical  Stairs,  -  -           C3 

Carriage  for  Same,  -           -           -           -  65 

Method  of  Forming  Carriages,           -           -  -67 

Circular  Strings,  68 

Elliptical  Strings,  69 

Radiating  Treads,    -  70 

Stretchout  of  Strings,     -  -           72 

Solid  Newels,                        - .  77 

All  Winders,  77 

Method  of  Framing,           -----  79 

Built  String,         -           ...  -80 

Staved  Cylinder,      r «2 

Bracketed  Stairs,           -  *:; 

Plain  Balusters,  84 

Ornate  Balusters,           -                                  85 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  VH 

PAGE. 

Newels. 86 

Words  on  Handrailing, 89 

Pedestal  Newel,         -                          -            -                         -            -            -  90 

Plain  Newel, 91 

Miscellaneous, 93 

Dancing  Steps  Graphically,                  94 

Method  of  Obtaining, 94 

Reducing  Brackets, 95 

Mitei in- Cap  and  Rail. 96 

Scribing  String. 97 

Appliances  fur  Same.           .....--  98 

Small  Cylinders, 99 

Gluing  Up  Stuff, 99 

Scribing  Stuff, 100 

Glossary, 103,123 


ILLUSTRATIONS,  DIAGRAMS,  ETC. 

Oak  Stair, Frontispiece. 

Block  Steps,  14 

Cellar  Steps,         --- 15 

Curious  Block  Steps, 16.  17 

Rough  Steps, -  18 

Plan  of  Plat  form  Stairs, 19 

Diagrams  of  Tread  and  Riser,             -           -           -           -           -           -  21.  22 

Plan  of  Stairs  with  Cylinder, 24 

Pitch-board, 25.  26.  27 

Viexv  of  Stairs, 28 

Plans  of  Strings. 29.31.33,36,37,38,39 

Met  hud  of  Forming  Steps, 30 

Plan  and  Elevation,       -           - 3.'. 

Plan  ot  Well-Hole 40 

Plan  of  Phu form  Stairs.              - 41 

1'Ian  and  Elevation  of  Return  Stairs,      -----  43 

Plan  and  Elevation  of  Four-Neweled  Stairs,            -           ...  45 

Closed-String  Stairs, 46,  47 

Plan  an-1  Klevation  of  Continuous  stairs.      -----  48 


Vm  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Plan  and  Elevation  of  Circular  Stairs, 50,  51 

Partial  Elevation  of  Circular  Flight, 62 

Plan  and  Elevation  of  Straight  Flight, 53 

Geometrical  Stair  and  Carriage,  54 

Double  Platform  Stairs, 57 

Plan  and  Elevation  of  Straight  and  Winding  Stairs,  -     58,  59 

Elevations  of  Winding  Stairs,  GO,  61 

Semicircular,  with  Platforms.  -------62 

Cylinder, 63 

Plan  of  Semicircular  Stairs,     -  -          -          64 

Plan  of  Elliptical  Stairs,       -  -  65 

Stair  Carriages,     -  66,  67,  68,  69,  71 

Stretchout  of  Strings,  -.=.....  71,73,74,76 

Circular  Plan,  ........  77 

Circular  Elevation,    -•-...«..  78 

Method  of  Framing.       -          -          -          -          -          -          -          -  79 

Built  String,    -  80 

Elevation  of  Elliptical  Stairs,    -  82 

Balusters,        -  84,  85, 105,  106 

Newels,  86,  87,  88,  90,  91 

Dancing  Treads,       ...          -  93 

Diminishing  Brackets.    -  ...          95 

Mitering  Cap  and  Rail.         -------  96 

Scribing  String, 9? 

Small  Cylinder,  98,  99 

Stair  Brackets,  36,  106,  107,  108 

Sections  of  Hand-Rails,  -          -  110,  113,  114 


STAIR-BUILDING 
MADE     EASY. 


RELIMINARY. — The  object  of  this  work  is  to  teach  the 
beginner  in  the  arts  of  carpentry  and  joinery,  some 
simple  rules  for  the  construction  of  the  body  of  stairs,  so 
that  he  may  be  able  to  undertake  work  of  this  kind  with  some 
degree  of  certainty  that  satisfactory  results  will  follow  his  efforts. 

There  are  a  great  many  terms  used  in  the  construction  of  stairs 
by  professional  stair-builders,  many  of  which  I  shall  be  obliged  to 
use  in  this  volume ;  and,  as  the  young  reader  is  not  supposed  to 
be  conversant  with  these  terms,  and  as  their  explanation  would  be 
tedious  and  out  of  place  in  the  body  of  the  work,  it  has  been 
deemed  necessary  to  append  at  the  end  of  the  book  a  complete 
glossary  or  explanation  of  the  terms  used.  This  it  is  thought  will 
add  to  the  value  of  the  work,  and  will  doubtless  aid  the  student 
very  much  to  a  thorough  understanding  of  its  contents. 

Introduction. — Stairs  are  constructions  composed  of  hori- 
zontal planes  elevated  above  each  other,  forming  steps,  affording  the 
means  of  communication  between  the  different  stories  of  a  building. 

In  the  distribution  of  a  house  of  several  stories,  the  stairs  occupy 
an  important  place.  In  new  constructions  their  form  may  be 
regular,  but  in  the  reparation  or  remodelling  of  old  buildings,  the 
first  consideration  is  generally  to  make  the  distribution  suitable  for 
the  living  and  sleeping  rooms,  and  then  to  convert  to  the  use  of 
the  stairs  the  spaces  which  may  remain ;  giving  to  them  such  forms 
in  plan  as  will  render  them  agreeable  to  the  sight,  and  commodious 
in  the  use. 


IO  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

A  great  variety  of  form  in  the  plans  of  stairs  is  thus  in  a  measure 
forced  on  the  designer,  leading  to  many  ingenious  contrivances  for 
overcoming  difficulties,  disguising  defects,  and  enhancing  accidental 
beauties,  which  he  might  not  have  adopted  if  unfettered  in  his 
choice.  These  inventions,  originated  by  necessity,  are  again  ap- 
plied in  cases  where  the  necessity  may  not  exist,  recommended  by 
their  intrinsic  beauty,  or  by  the  desire  for  variety  in  design. 

Being  also  somewhat  intricate  and  difficult  to  understand,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  designs  or  drawings  should  be  clear 
and  distinct,  and  that  every  part  should  be  correct  and  true  in  its 
relations  to  other  parts.  This  applies  just  as  much  to  the  building 
of  bodies  or  carcases  of  stairs,  as  it  does  to  the  construction  of 
hand-railing.  I  say  this  much  to  the  student  in  order  that  he  may 
be  persuaded  to  be  very  careful  when  making  drawings  for  future 
work,  or  designing  stairs  for  his  own  instruction.  Perhaps  there  is 
no  branch  of  joinery  that  requires  so  much  skill  and  careful  work- 
manship as  the  building  and  completing  of  a  first-class  geometrical 
stair;  and  it  should  be  the  chief  ambition  of  every  joiner  to  be 
able  to  say  he  designs  and  executes  the  work  in  a  complete  and 
satisfactory  manner. 

The  following  terms  are  necessary,  and  the  student  must  make 
himself  familiar  with  them  before  he  proceeds  further,  or  his  pro- 
gress will  be  very  slow  and  difficult : 

Stairs  are  arrangements  for  conveniently  ascending  from  one 
level  to  another.  They  are  generally  constructed  of  wood,  and  it 
is  this  kind  of  stairs  that  this  volume  discusses.  They  are  some- 
times built  of  stone,  concrete,  or  iron. 

The  Body  Or  Staircase  is  the  room  or  space  in  which 
the  stairs  are  contained.  This  may  be  a  space  including  the  width 
and  length  of  the  stairs  only,  in  which  case  it  is  called  a  close  stair, 
and  no  rail  or  buluster  is  necessary ;  or  the  stairs  may  be  in  a  large 
apartment,  such  as  a  passage  or  a  hall,  or  even  in  a  large  room, 
openings  being  left  in  the  upper  floors  so  as  to  allow  head  room 
for  persons  on  the  stairs,  and  to  furnish  communication  between 
the  stairs  and  the  different  stories  of  the  building.  These  are  called 


STAIR-JiUII.m.Xr,    MADK    l.ASV.  II 

open  stairs,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  not  enclosed  on  both  sides, 
one  side  showing  the  ends  of  the  steps  while  the  other  side  of  the 
stairs  is  generally  placed  against  a  wall.  Sometimes  stairs  are  left 
open  on  both  sides,  this  latter  class  being  more  common  in  hotels, 
public  halls,  and  steamships.  When  these  stairs  are  employed,  the 
openings  in  the  upper  floor  should  be  well  "  trimmed  "  with  joists 
or  beams,  something  stronger  than  the  ordinary  joists  used  in  the 
same  floor.  The  manner  of  "  trimming "  will  be  shown  further 
on  ;  as  will  also  the  different  styles  of  stairs. 

Tread  is  the  horizontal  upper  surface  of  the  step  upon  which 
the  foot  is  placed.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  piece  of  stuff  that  forms 
the  step,  and  is  generally  from  i^  inches  to  3  inches  thick,  and 
made  of  a  width  and  length  to  suit  the  position  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended. 

Riser  is  the  vertical  position  of  the  step.  It  is  generally  made 
of  thinner  stuff  than  the  tread,  and,  as  a  rule,  is  not  so  wide.  Its 
duty  is  to  connect  the  treads  together  and  to  give  the  stairs 
strength  and  solidity.  The  manner  of  connecting  riser,  tread  and 
string  together  will  be  shown  in  other  pages. 

Rise  and.  Run. — This  term  is  used  to  indicate  the  space  the 
stairs  will  occupy,  the  "  rise  "  meaning  the  height  of  the  top  of  the 
lower  floor  to  the  top  of  the  second  floor,  and  the  "  run  "  meaning 
the  distance  from  the  front  of  the  first  riser  to  the  face  of  the  last 
or  top  riser,  from  which  a  plumb  line  is  dropped  to  the  floor, 
which  point  to  face  of  first  riser  is  the  "run."  In  other  words,  it  is 
simply  the  distance  that  the  treads  would  make  if  put  edge  to  edge 
and  measured  altogether.  This,  of  course,  means  without  taking 
in  the  nosings.  Suppose  we  have  fifteen  treads,  each  being  1 1 
inches  wide,  this  would  make  a  run  of  13  feet  9  inches,  as  follows: 
15  X  ii  =  165  -i-  12"  =  13  ft.  9  inches.  Sometimes  this  distance 
is  called  the  "  going "  of  the  stair ;  this,  however,  is  an  English 
term,  seldom  used  in  this  country,  and,  when  used,  as  often  means 
the  length  of  a  single  tread,  as  it  does  the  "  /-////  "  of  the  stairs. 

Nosing. — This  is  the  outer  edge  of  the  tread,  and  in  all  cases 
projects  over  the  face  of  the  riser.  In  most  cases  it  is  ornamented, 


12  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

either  by  taking  off  the  corners  or  arrises,  or  by  rounding  the  edge, 
or,  as  is  sometimes  done,  by  "  sticking  "  a  moulding  on  it.  The 
nosing  is  said  to  be  either  chamfered,  rounded  or  moulded,  just  as 
the  case  may  be.  When  the  tread  projects  over  the  "  string,"  and 
the  nosing  is  cut  or  wrought  on  the  projecting  end,  it  is  raid  to  be 
a  "  return  nosing."  Underneath  the  nosing,  on  stairs  that  have  any 
claims  to  being  termed  "  good,"  there  is  always  a  small  moulding 
of  some  kind ;  generally  a  small  cove  or  other  similar  moulding. 
This  moulding  or  cove  mitres  around  the  end  of  the  step  on  to  the 
string,  when  the  tread  is  finished  with  a  return  nosing.  This  will 
be  fully  explained  hereafter. 

String. — There  are  two  kinds  of  strings — i.  e.,  wall  strings  and 
cut  strings.  These  are  divided  again  into  other  strings,  as  housed 
strings,  notched  strings,  staved  strings,  and  rough  strings.  Wall 
strings  are  the  supporters  of  the  ends  of  the  treads  and  risers  that 
are  against  the  wall ;  these  strings  may  be  on  both  ends  of  the 
treads  and  risers,  or  they  may  be  on  one  end  only.  They  may  be 
"housed"  or  left  solid.  When  housed,  the  treads  and  risers  are 
keyed  into  them  and  glued  and  blocked.  When  left  solid,  they 
have  a  rough  string  spiked  or  screwed  on  them  to  support  the  ends 
of  risers  and  treads.  Stairs  made  after  this  latter  fashion  are 
generally  of  a  rough,  strong  kind,  and  are  adapted  more  for  use  in 
factories,  shops,  and  warehouses,  where  strength  and  rigidity  are  of 
more  importance  than  appearances. 

Open  strings  are  outside  strings  or  supports,  and  are  cut  to  the 
proper  angles  for  receiving  the  ends  of  the  treads  and  risers.  It  is 
over  this  string  that  the  rail  and  balusters  range ;  it  is  also  on  this 
string  that  all  nosings  return,  and  on  this  account  in  some  localities 
this  string  gets  the  name  of  the  "  return  string." 

Housed  strings  are  those  that  have  grooves  cut  in  them  to  re- 
ceive the  ends  of  treads  and  risers.  Generally  all  wall  strings 
are  "  housed."  The  housings  are  made  from  f^  to  ^  of  an  inch 
deep,  and  the  lines  at  the  top  of  tread  and  face  of  riser  are  made 
to  correspond  with  the  lines  of  riser  and  tread  when  in  position. 
The  back  lines  of  the  housings  are  left  of  such  a  shape  that 


STAIR-1UMU>!N<;    MADE    EASY.  13 

a  taper  wedge  may  be  driven  in,  so  as  to  force  the  tread 
and  riser  close  to  the  face  shoulders,  thus  making  a  tight  joint. 

Rough  strings  are  cut  from  undressed  plank,  and  are  used  for 
strengthening  the  stairs.  Sometimes  a  combination  of  rough  cut 
strings  are  used  for  circular  or  geometrical  stairs,  and  when  framed 
together  form  the  support  or  carriage  of  the  stairs. 

Stave  strings  are  built  up  strings,  and  are  composed  of  narrow 
pieces  glued,  nailed,  or  bolted  together,  to  form  some  portion  of  a 
cylinder.  These  are  sometimes  used  for  circular  stairs,  though  in 
ordinary  practice  the  circular  part  of  a  string  is  a  part  of  the  main 
string  bent  around  a  cylinder  to  give  it  the  right  curve. 

Notched  strings  are  strings  that  only  carry  treads.  They  are 
generally  somewhat  narrower  than  the  treads,  and  are  housed  right 
across  their  whole  width.  A  sample  of  this  kind  of  string  is  shown 
at  Figs.  2  and  3,  where  the  housings  for  the  treads  are  numbered. 
These  kinds  of  strings  are  chiefly  used  in  cellars,  or  for  steps  answer- 
ing a  like  puqx>se. 

A  Flight  is  a  continued  series  of  steps  without  a  landing  or 
other  resting  place. 

A  Landing  is  a  resting  point  or  platform  where  one  flight 
ends,  and  where  another  may  start  from  in  any  direction. 

A  Flier  is  the  regular  step,  and  is  of  parallel  width  its  entire 
length. 

A  Winder  is  a  tread  wider  at  one  end  than  at  the  ether. 
These  winders  are  used  for  turning  a  corner  or  going  round  a 
curve.  The  small  end  of  winders  is  sometimes  called  a  quoin. 

A  Quarter  Space  is  a  landing  extending  half  across  the 
width  of  stairs. 

Half  Space  is  a  landing  extending  right  across  the  width  of 
stairs.  Sometimes  landings  are  made  of  greater  area  than  the  fore- 
going spaces  would  permit. 

The  Line  Of  Nosings  is  tangent  to  the  nosings  of  the 
steps,  and  is  therefore  parallel  to  the  inclination  of  the  stair. 


14 


STAIR-KUII.D1NO    MADE    EASY. 


Cylinders  Or  Well  Holes. — These  are  semicircular  or 
quarter-circular  openings,  around  which  the  stairs  are  carried. 
The  openings  are  formed  by  either  building  the  cylinder  with  staves 
or  bending  stuff  to  the  proper  curve. 

Newels. — These  are  posts  or  columns  either  turned  or  built  up. 
Generally  there  is  one  of  these  posts  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs,  and 
the  hand-rail  either  mitres  into  the  cap  of  the  post  or  it  "butts" 
against  a  square  left  purposely  for  it. 

Balusters. — These  are  smaller  posts  of  either  turned  work, 
square,  or  wrought  work,  and  are  designed  to  support  the  hand- 
rail, and  give  strength  and  a  finished  appearance  to  the  whole 
work. 

A  number  of  designs  for  newels  and  balusters  will  be  given 
further  on. 

Besides  the  terms  given  in  the  foregoing,  there  are  many  others 
1  may  have  to  use  in  the  body  of  the  work, 'and 
when  they  are  not  thoroughly  understood,  the 
student  is  advised  to  look  for  the  explanation 
in  the  glossary,  which  will  be  found  at  the  end 
of  the  book. 

Having  given  these  explanations,  which  for 
the  present  may  be  considered 
ample,  I  will  endeavor  to  de- 
scribe some  of  the  more  sim- 
ple contrivances  that  have  been 
used  in  various  places  for  the 
purpose  of  getting  from  one 
plane  to  another. 

The  ladder,  which  is  com- 
posed of  two  sides  and  a  number 
of  rungs  or  cleats  running  across 
the  sides,  may  be  considered  the 
simplest  form  of  a  stair,  for  the 
same  principles  are  involved  in  the  construction  of  a  common  ladder 
as  are  necessary  for  the  building  of  a  first-class  straight  flight  of  stairs. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


STAIR-RUIL 


IN',     MADK     KASV. 


That  kind  of  stair  which,  after  the  common  ladder,  is  the  most 
simple,  is  formed  of  a  thick  plank  placed  at  a  convenient  angle  to 
form  the  ascent,  and  upon  it  are  nailed  pieces  of  wood  to  give  a 
firm  footing.  This  (Fig.  i)  is  often  used  in  scaffolding. 

The  stair  next  in  degree  is  composed  of  horizontal  planks  form- 
ing steps,  just  sufficiently  wide  to  give  a  footing;  the  planks  are 
tenoned  on  the  ends  and  let  into  mortises  in  two  raking  pianks  ; 
the  mortises  are  sometimes  rectangular,  as  at  d  (Fig.  2),  and  some- 


JOIST 


Fig.  3. 

times  they  follow  the  inclination  of  the  sides,  as  b  and  c.     In  the 
better  sort  the  outer  edge  of  the  step  has  a  nosing,  as  at  c.     The 


i6 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


tenons  of  the  steps  are  sometimes  made  so  long  as  to  pass  entirely 
through  the  sides,  and  are  secured  by  keys  on  the  outside :  to  pre- 
serve the  planks  which  form  the  steps  from  splitting,  the  sides  of 
the  raking  pieces  are  grooved  to  receive  their  ends.  The  opposite 
side  pieces,  too,  are  often  bound  together  by  iron  rods ;  one  end  of 
each  rod  having  a  rivet  head,  and  the  other  end  being  screwed 
with  a  nut  to  embrace  the  side  pieces.  Such  rods  should  be 
placed  near  the  middle  of  a  step,  and  close  to  its  under  side. 

This  method  of  building  stairs,  or  rather  steps,  will  be  better  un- 
derstood by  a  study  of  Fig.  3,  where  the  string  for  the  steps  are 
shown  along  with  the  method  of  getting  the  right  angle  for  the  lay 
of  the  treads.  In  using  the  steel  square  to  get  the  "  pitch  "  or 
angle  ot  the  tread,  proceed  as  shown  in  the  cut.  The  height  of 
the  rise  in  this  case  is  nine  inches,  so  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  lay  off  the  string  as  the  long  side  of  the  square 
hangs  plumb,  and  nine  inches  up  its  length  will  be  the  distance 

from  the  top  of  one  step  to 
the  top  of  the  next  one. 

The  opening  in  the  floor 
at  the  top  of  the  string 
shows  the  end  of  the  trim- 
ming joists,  which  in  this 
case  are  five  feet  apart. 

There  is  a  contrivance 
for  economizing  space 
sometimes  used,  which, 
perhaps,  it  may  be  well  to 
mention,  as  the  ascent  is 
thereby  made  in  about 
one-half  the  space  other- 
wise required. 

The    width  of  this  kind 
of  stair  is  divided  into  two 
sets  of  steps,  both  of  equal 
length  and  width,  but  the 
Fiy.  4.  risers,  except  the  first  and 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADK    KASY. 


last,  are  made  twice  the  usual  height;  thus,  if  the  line  a  B  (Fig.  4) 
be  72  inches,  and  the  width  c  r>  33  inches,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
rise  80  inches,  divide  the  line  a  B  in  nine  equal  parts,  and  make  the 
step  equal  to  two  of  these  parts;  also,  divide  the  width  in  two 
equal  parts,  and  the  height  into  ten  equal  parts,  which  gives  8 
inches  for  the  tread,  8  inches  for  the  bottom  riser,  and  16  inches 
for  the  intermediate  risers  a  a,  etc.,  and 
8  for  the  top  riser  b.  Arrange  the  risers 
in  such  order  that  the  face  line  of  one 
riser  shall  be  in  the  midway  betwixt  the  face 
of  the  one  next  below  and  the  one  next 
above,  as  will  better  be  seen  by  reference  to 
Fig.  5.  The  height  of  the  risers  is  so  dis- 
posed that  the  bottom  riser  shall  have  the 
face  of  the  first  step  8  inches  from  the 
floor,  whilst  the  first  step  on  b  shall  be  16 
inches  from  the  floor,  and  the  succeeding 
risers  16  inches  each. 

In  using  this  stair,  one  foot  is  placed  on 
a  step  of  one    flight,  as  at  a  (Fig.  4),  and  the    other  on  a   step 
of  the  other  flight,  as  at  b,  and  so  on  alternately.      Such  stairs 
will  only  admit  the  passage  of  one  per- 
son at  a  time. 

When  it  is  required  to  admit  of  two 
persons    passing     each     other,    three 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


flights   arc  necessary,  the  centre  flight  being    made  wider  than  the 
exterior  flights  (Figs.  6  and  7).     This  contrivance  may  be  used  in 


1 8  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

places  not  sufficiently  spacious  to  admit  of  stairs  of  the  usual  con- 
struction. 

When  houses  began  to  be  built  in  stories,  the  stairs  were  placed 
from  story  to  story  in  straight  flights  like  ladders.  They  were 
erected  on  the  exterior  of  the  building,  and  to  shelter  them  when 
so  placed,  great  projection  was  given  to  the  roofs.  To  save  the 
extent  of  space  required  by  straight  flights,  the  stairs  were  made  to 
turn  upon  themselves  in  a  spiral  form,  and  were  enclosed  in  tur- 
rets. A  newel,  either  square  or  round,  reaching  from  the  ground 
to  the  roof,  served  to  support  the  inner  ends  of  the  steps,  and  the 
outer  ends  were  let  into  the  walls,  or  supported  on  notched  boards 
attached  to  the  walls. 

At  a  later  period  the  stairs  came  to  be  inclosed  within  the  build- 
ing itself  and  for  a  long  time  preserved  the  spiral  form,  which  the 
former  situation  had  necessitated. 

Another  method  of  forming  a  stair  expeditiously,  is  to  notch  out 
the  side  pieces  on  their  upper  edge  sufficiently  to 
receive  the  steps  and  risers,  thus:  a  a  the  side  pieces, 
b  b  the  risers,  and  c  c  the  step  boards  or  treads 
(Fig.  8).  The  risers  are  nailed  at  the  ends  to  the 
sides  or  strings,  and  the  steps  are  nailed  to  the  risers 
and  also  to  the  strings.  Such  methods  as  have  been 
described  are  often  used  in  warehouses,  factories,  and 
agricultural  buildings. 

Where  communication  between  the  stories  is  fre- 
Fig.  8  quent,  the  qualities  necessary  in   the  stairs  are  ease 

and  convenience  in  using,  combined  with  sufficient 
strength  and  durability.  Economy  of  space  in  the  construction  of 
stairs  is  an  important  consideration.  To  obtain  this,  the  stairs  are 
made  to  turn  upon  themselves,  one  flight  being  carried  above  an- 
other at  such  a  height  as  will  admit  of  head  room  to  a  full  grown 
person. 

Method  Of   Setting   Out    Stairs  where   the   building  is 
already  erected,  or  the  general  plan  of  Hie  building  is  understood. 
The  first  objects  to  be  ascertained  are  the  situation  of  the  first 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADK    EASY. 


and  last  risers,  and  the  height  of  the  story  wherein  the  stair  is  to  be 
placed.  A  sketch  is  made  of  the  plan  of  the  hall  to  the  extent  of 
10  or  12  feet  from  the  supposed  place  of  the  foot  of  the  stair,  and 
all  the  doorways,  branching  passages,  or  windows  which  can  pos- 
sibly come  in  contact  with  the  stair  from  its  commencement  to  its 
expected  termination  or  landing  are  noted.  The  sketch  necessarily 
includes  a  portion  of  the  entrance-hall  in  one  part,  and  of  the  lobby 
or  landing  in  the  other,  and  on  it  have  to  be  laid  down  the  expected 
lines  of  the  first  and  last  risers.  The  height  of  the  story  is  next  to 
be  exactly  determined  and  taken  on  a  rod;  then,  assuming  a  height 
of  riser  suitable  to  the  place,  a  trial  is  made,  by  division,  how  often 
this  height  is  contained  in  the  height  of  the  story,  and  the  quotient, 
if  there  be  no  remainder,  will  be  the  number  of  risers  in  the  story. 
Should  there  be  a  remainder  on  the  first  division,  the  operation  is 
reversed,  the  number  of  inches  in  the  height  being  made  the  divi- 
dend, and  the  before-found  quotient  the  divisor,  and  the  operation 
of  division  by  reduction  is  carried  on,  till  the  height  of  the  riser  isf 
obtained  to  the  thirty-second  part  of  an  inch.  These  heights  ar0 
then  set  off  on  the  story  rod  as  exactly  as  possible.  The  next 
operation  is  to  show  the  risers  on  the 
plan,  but  for  this  no  arbitrary  rule  can  A 
be  given ;  the  designer  must  exercise 
his  ingenuity. 

When  two  flights  are  necessary  for 
a  story,  it  is  desirable  that  each  flight 
should  consist  of  an  equal  number  of 
risers;  but  this  will  depend  on  the 
form  of  the  staircase,  the  situation  and 
height  of  the  doors,  and  other  obsta- 
cles to  be  passed  over  or  under,  as  the 
case  may  be.  Try  what  the  width  of 
the  tread  will  be  by  setting  off,  upon 
the  line  n  a,  in  Figure  9,  the  width  of 
the  landing  from  the  wall  A  B;  and 
dividing  the  length  of  the  flight  into 
•is  many  equal  spaces  as  it  is  intended 


2O  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

there  should  be  steps  in  each  flight.  The  landing  covers  one  riser, 
and  therefore  the  number  of  steps  in  a  flight  will  be  always  one 
fewer  than  the  number  of  risers.  The  width  of  tread  which  can 
be  obtained  for  each  flight  will  thus  be  found,  and  consistent  with 
the  situation  the  plan  will  be  so  far  decided.  A  pitch-board  should 
now  be  formed  to  the  angle  of  inclination;  this  is  done  by  making 
a  piece  of  thin  board  in  the  shape  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  the 
base  of  which  is  the  exact  going  of  the  step,  and  its  perpendicular 
the  height  of  the  riser. 

If  the  stair  be  a  newel  stair,  its  width  will  be  found  by  setting 
out  the  plan  and  section  of  the  newel  on  the  landing  (if  one 
newel,  it  should,  of  course,  stand  in  the  middle  of  the  width) ;  then, 
in  collection  with  the  newel,  mark  the  place  of  the  outer  or  front 
String,  and  also  the  place  of  the  back  or  wall  string,  according  to 
the  intended  thickness  of  each.  This  should  be  done  not  only  to 
a  scale  on  the  plan,  but  likewise  to  the  full  size  on  the  rod.  Set 
off  on  the  rod,  in  the  thickness  of  each  string,  the  depth  of  the 
grooving  of  the  steps  into  the  string ;  mark  also  on  the  plan  the 
place  and  section  of  the  bottom  newel;  the  same  figure  answers 
for  the  place  of  the  top  newel  of  the  second  flight,  the  flights  being 
supposed  of  equal  length.  The  front  string  is  usually  framed  into 
the  middle  of  the  newel,  and  thus  the  centres  of  the  rail,  the 
newels,  the  balusters,  and  the  front  string  range  with  each  other; 
the  width  of  the  flights  will  thus  be  shown  on  the  rod. 

It  is  a  general  maxim  that  the  greater  the  breadth  of  a  step  the 
less  should  be  the  height  of  the  riser;  and  conversely,  the  less  the 
breadth  of  step,  the  greater  should  be  the  height  of  the  riser.  Ex- 
perience shows  that  a  step  of  12  inches,  width  and  5^  inches  rise 
may  be  taken  as  a  standard ;  and  if  from  this  it  is  attempted  to 
deduce  a  rule  of  proportion,  substituting,  for  the  sake  of  whole 
numbers,  the  dimensions  in  half-inches,  namely,  24  and  11,  then, 
in  order  to  find  any  other  width  corresponding  in  inverse  propor- 
tion, 

Say  as   24  :  ii  ::  12  :  22 

24  :  ii  ::  19  :  13-8 

24  :  1 1  : :  20  :  13*2. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


21 


Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  a  step  of  6  inches  in  width  will  require 
the  riser  to  be  1  1  inches,  a  step  of  9)^  inches  will  need  the  riser  to 
be  nearly  7  inches,  and  that  a  step  of  10  inches  requires  a  riser  of 
about  6^6  inches. 

The  same  thing  is  thus  otherwise  expressed.  Let  T  be  the  tread 
and  R  the  riser  of  any  step  which  is  found  to  have  proper  porpoi> 
tion,  then  to  find  the  proportion  of  any  other  tread  /,  and  riser  r, 

RXT         TXR 

---  =  /,  or  ---  =  r. 
r  t 

Take,  for  example,  a  step  with  a  tread  of  12  and  a  riser  of  5^ 
inches  as  the  standard,  then  to  find  the  breadth  of  the  tread  when 
the  given  riser  is  8  inches,  and  substituting  these  values  for  /  and 
r  in  the  formula,  we  have 


inches  as  the  breadth  of  tread. 

Suppose,  again,  the  given  breadth  to  be  13  inches,  we  have 


=5-3 


inches  as  the  height  of  riser. 

This  process  of  inverse  proportion  may  be  performed  graphically 
as  follows  ; 


Fig.  10. 

Let  the^read  and  riser  of  a  step  of  approved  proportion  be  rep- 
resented by  the  sides  c  t>,  6e,  of  the  triangle  a  be.  Fig.  10.    Through 


22  STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 

the  point  a,  draw  a  line  d  af,  parallel  to  the  step  line  c  b.  Then 
to  find  the  riser  for  any  other  step,  set  off  on  the  line  c  b,  from  the 
point  c  to  //,  the  required  width  of  a  step,  say  10  inches,  and  draw 
d  d;  draw  also  c  d,  and  continue  it  to  the  line  ba,  and  the  point  of 
intersection  there  will  show  the  height  of  riser  corresponding  to  the 
tread  c  d.  In  like  manner,  if  the  width  given  be  18  inches,  set  it 
off  in  the  point  6;  draw  6  e  and  c  <?,  and  the  intersection  at  h  will 
be  obtained,  giving  32/3  inches  for  the  height  of  the  riser.  A  width 
of  20  inches  will  show  a  height  of  3-3  inches.  On  the  right  side  of 
the  figure  is  shown  each  step  I  have  mentioned,  connected  with  its 
proper  riser,  thus  exhibiting  the  angle  of  pitch. 

The  same  end  nearly  is  arrived  at  thus :  In  the  right-angled 
triangle  a  b  c,  Fig.  n,  make  a  b  equal  to  24  inches,  and  b  c  equal 
to  1 1  inches,  according  to  the  previous  standard  proportion ;  then 


to  find  the  riser  corresponding  to  a  given  tread,  from  b  set  off  on  a  b 
the  length  of  the  tread,  as  l>d,  and  through  //draw  the  perpendicu- 
lar ^/<?,  meeting  the  hypotheneuse  in  e;  then  d  c  is  the  height  of 
the  riser,  and  if  we  join  be,  the  angle  dbe  ifc  the  slope  of  the  ascent. 
In  like  manner,  where  £/is  the  width  of  the  tread,  fg  is  the  riser, 
and  b  g  the  slope  of  the  stair.  A  width  of  tread,  b  h,  gives  a  riser 
of  the  height  of  h  k,  and  a  width  of  tread  equal  to  b  /,  gives  a  riser 
equal  to  /  m. 

It  is  conceived,  however,  that  a  better  proportion  for  steps  and 
risers  may  be  obtained  by  the  annexed  method : 

Set  down  two  sets  ot  numbers,  each  in  arithmetical  progression; 


STAIR- BUILDING    MADE    EASY.  23 

the  first  set  showing  the  width  of  the  steps,  ascending  by  inches, 
the  other  showing  the  height  of  the  riser,  descending  by  half  inches. 
It  will  readily  be  seen  that  each  of  these  steps  and 
risers  are  such  as  may  suitably  pair  together.  Treads.  Risen. 

It  is  seldom,  however,  that  the  proportion  of  the  Inches"  I"ches 
step  and  riser  is  exactly  a  matter  of  choice — the  room        6       8j 
allotted  to  the  stairs  usually  determines  this  proportion  ;        7       8" 
but  the  above  will   be    found  a    useful  standard,    to        9       7* 
which  it  is  desirable  to  approximate. 

In  better  class  buildings  the  number  of  steps  is  con-      12       51 
sidered  in   the  plan,  which  it  is  the  business  of  the      ^       ^ 
architect  to  arrange,  and  in  such  cases  the  height  of      15       4 
the  story  rod  is  simply  divided  into  the  number  re-      16       3i 
quired.  18       2£ 

Plans  Of  Stairs.— Before    giving   examples   of 
the  various  forms  of  stairs  ordinarily  occurring  in  practice,  I  will 
with  some  minuteness  illustrate  the  mode  of  laying  down  the  plan 
of  a  stair,  where    the  height  of  the  story,  the  number  of  the  steps, 
and  the  space  which  they  are  to  occupy  are  all  given. 

The  first  example  shall  be  of  the  simplest  kind,  or  dog-legged 
stairs. 

Let  the  height  (Fig.  9)  be  10  feet,  the  number  of  risers  17,  the 
height  of  each  riser  consequently  7  1-17,  and  the  breadth  of  tread 
9^  ;  the  width  of  the  staircase  5  feet  8  inches. 

Proceed  first  to  lay  down  on  the  plan  the  width  of  the  landing, 
then  the  size  of  the  newel  a  in  its  proper  position,  the  centre  of  the 
newel  being  on  the  riser  line  of  the  landing,  which  should  be  drawn 
at  a  distance  from  the  back  wall  equal  to  the  semi-width  of  the 
staircase,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  side  wall.  Bisect  the  last  riser 
a  b  at  o,  and  describe  an  arc  from  the  centre  of  the  newel,  as  o  n, 
on  which  set  out  the  breadth  of  the  winders ;  then  to  the  centre  of 
the  newel  draw  the  lines  indicating  the  face  of  each  riser.  If  there  be 
not  space  to  get  in  the  whole  of  the  steps,  winders  may  be  also  intro- 
duced on  the  left  hand  side,  instead  of  the  quarter  space,  as  shown. 

The  next  example  is  a  geometrical  staircase. 


STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 


Let  A  BCD  (Fig.  12)  be  the  plan  of  the  walls  where  a  geome- 
trical stair  is  to  be  erected,  and  the  line  c  be  the  line  of  the  face  of 
the  first  riser;  let  the  whole  height  of  the  story  be  n  feet  6  inches, 

and  the  height  of  riser  6  inches, 
the  number  of  risers  will  conse- 
quently be  twenty-three.  The 
number  of  steps  in  each  flight 
will  be  one  fewer  than  the  num- 
ber of  risers,  and  according  to 
the  preceding  rule  the  tread 
should  be  1 1  inches,  so  if  there 
are  two  flights  there  will  be 
twenty-one  steps;  or  if  winders 
are  necessary,  there  will  be 
twenty-two  steps  in  all,  from  the 
first  to  the  last  riser.  Having 
first  set  out  the  opening  of  the 
well-hole,  or  the  line  of  balusters, 
divide  the  width  of  the  stairs  into 
two  equal  parts,  and  continue 
the  line  of  division  with  a  semi- 
circle round  the  circular  part,  as 

shown  by  the  dotted  line  in  the  figure;  then  divide  this  line  from 
the  first  to  the  last  riser  into  twenty-two  equal  parts,  and  if  a  proper 
width  for  each  step  can  thus  be  obtained,  draw  the  lines  for  the 
risers.  This  would,  however,  give  a  greater  width  of  step  than  is 
required;  take,  therefore,  n  inches  for  the  width  of  step,  and  this, 
repeated  twenty  times,  will  reach  to  the  line  d,  which  is  the  last 
riser.  There  is  in  this  case  eight  winders  in  the  half  space,  but 
four  winders  might  be  placed  in  one  quarter  space,  the  other  quar- 
ter space  might  be  made  a  landing,  and  the  rest  of  the  steps  being 
fliers,  would  bring  the  last  riser  to  the  line  A  c.  The  usual  place 
for  the  entrance  to  the  cellar  stairs  is  at  D,  but  allowing  for  the 
thickness  of  the  carriages,  the  height  obtainable  there  will  be  only 
about  6  feet,  which  is  not  sufficient.  At  E,  in  this  example,  would 
be  a  better  situation  for  the  entrance  to  the  cellar  steps. 


Fig.  12. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY.  25 

In  a  straight  flight  of  stairs  it  is  hardly  necessary  for  the  young 
workman  to  make  a  drawing  of  the  plan  of  the  stairs,  as  the  steps 
are  all  alike,  and  if  a  proper  division  of  the  height  or  "  rise,"  and 
the  length  or  "run"  is  made,  and  a  "pitch  board"  made  to  suit 
these  dimensions,  this  will  be  quite  sufficient  to  enable  the  work- 
man to  lay  out  the  strings  correctly. 

It  is  now  in  order  to  explain  what  a  "pitch-board"  is,  how  to 
make  it,  and  what  are  its  uses. 

A  Pitch-Board,  properly  speaking,  is  a  thin  piece  of  wood — 
generally  pine  or  sheet  metal — and  is  a  right-angled  triangle  in 
shape.  One  of  its  sides  is  made  the  exact  length  of  the  rise ;  at 
right  angles  with  this  line  of  rise  the  exact  width  of  the  tread  is 
measured  oft",  and  from  this  point  to  the  point  forming  the  height 
of  the  riser,  a  line  is  drawn,  and  the  material  cut  at  this  line  forms 
the  third  side.  Further  on  I  will  show,  by  illustration,  the  shape 
of  the  tool — for  it  is  a  tool — and  the  method  employed  in  making 
it  ready  for  use. 

Perhaps  the  simplest  way  of  making  a  pitch-board  is  by  making 


Fiji.  13. 

use  of  a  steel  square,  which,  of  course,  every  carpenter  in  this  coun- 
try is  supposed  to  possess.  To  show  him  how  \\\t  pitch-board  may 
be  made  by  using  the  square,  or  how  the  stair-string  may  be  layed 
out  by  the  square,  I  give  the  following,  which  is  taken  from  the 


26  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE   EASY. 

"Steel  Square  and  Its  Uses,"  a  very  valuable  work.  Fig.  13  shows 
a  part  of  a  stair  string  with  the  square  laid  on,  showing  its  applica- 
tion in  cutting  out  a  pitch-board.  As  the  square  is  placed  it  shows 
10  inches  for  the  tread  and  7  inches  for  the  rise. 

To  cut  a  pitch-board,  after  the  tread  and  rise  have  been  deter- 
mined, proceed  as  follows:  Take  a  piece  of  thin,  clear  stuff,  and 
lay  the  square  on  the  face  edge,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  and  mark 
out  the  pitch-board  with  a  sharp  knife;  then  cut  out  with  a  fine 
saw  and  dress  to  knife  marks,  nail  a  piece  on  the  largest  edge  of 
the  pitch-board  for  a  fence,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

The  next  thing  to  be  considered  is  what  is  the  manner  of  using 
the  pitch-board  ?  Before  showing,  its  use,  however,  I  wish  the 
learner  to  have  a  thorough  conception  of  what  the  pitch-board  is, 
and  with  that  object  I  show  and  explain  the  following  illustrations. 
Fig.  14  shows  the  pitch-board  pure  and  simple;  it  may  be  half  an 


Fig.  14.  Fig-  15.  Fig.  1C. 

inch  thick,  or  if  of  hard  wood  may  be  from  a  quarter  to  an  halt 
an  inch  thick. 

Fig.  1 5  shows  the  pitch-board  after  the  gauge  or  fence  is  nailed 
on.  This  fence  or  gauge  may  be  about  one  and  a  half  inches  wide, 
and  from  ^  to  y(  of  an  inch  thick.  Fig.  16  shows  a  sectional 
view  of  the  pitch-board  with  the  fence  nailed  on  as  at  b p,  which 
shows  the  edge  of  the  board. 

At  Fig.  17  the  manner  of  applying  the  board  is  shown.  R,  R,  R; 
R  is  the  string,  and  the  line  A  shows  the  jointed  or  straight  edge  of 
the  string.  The  pitch-board,  /,  is  shown  in  position,  the  line  8^3 
represents  the  step  or  tread,  and  the  line  7^  shows  the  line  of  the 
riser.  These  two  lines  are  of  course  at  right  angles,  or,  as  the  car- 
penter would  say,  "  they  are  square."  This  string  shows  four  com- 


STAlR-feUlLDMG    MADE    EASY. 


27 


ci" 


plete  cuts  for  treads,  and  a  part  of  a  fifth  one,  and  five  complete 
cuts  for  risers.  The  bottom  of  the  string  at  w  is  cut  off  at  the  line 
of  the  floor  on  which  it  is  supposed  to 
rest.  The  line  c  is  the  line  of  the  first 
riser.  This  riser  is  narrower  than  any 
of  the  other  risers,  because  the  thick- 
ness of  the  first  tread  is  always  taken  off 
it ;  thus,  if  the  tread  is  i  }4  inches  thick, 
the  riser  in  this  case  would  only  require 
to  be  six  and  a  quarter  inches  wide,  as 
6*^  and  i}4  inches  together  make 
seven  and  three-quarter  inches.  An- 
other thing  to  be  considered  is  the 
string,  which  must  be  cut  so  that  the 
line  at  w  will  be  only  six  and  a  quarter 
inches  from  the  line  at  8^,  and  it  must 
be  parallel  with  it.  The  first  riser  and 
tread  having  been  satisfactorily  dealt 
with,  the  rest  may  be  easily  marked  off 
by  simply  sliding  the  pitch-board  along 
the  line  A  until  the  line  8^3  on  the 
pitch-board  strikes  the  line  7^  on  the 
string,  when  another  tread  and  another 
riser  are  to  be  marked  off.  The  re- 
maining risers  and  treads  are  marked 
oft"  in  the  same  manner. 

Sometimes  there  may  be  a  little  diffi- 
culty in  fitting  the  string  at  the  top  of 
the  stairs  to  the  trimmer  or  joists,  but, 
as  I  first  desire  the  student  to  become 
expert  with  the  pitch  board  before  I 
give  him  anything  that  he  will  not 
readily  understand,  I  will  leave  the  sub- 
ject of  trimming  the  well,  or  attaching  the  cylinder  to  the  string 
until  other  matters  have  been  discussed. 

Fig.  1 8  shows  a  portion  of  the  stairs  in  position,     s,  s  show  the 


28  STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 

strings,  which  in  this  case  are  cut  square ;  that  is,  the  part  of  the 
string  to  which  the  riser  is  joined  is  cut  square  across,  and  the 

"  but "  or  end  wood  of  the  riser 
is  seen.  In  this  case,  also,  the 
end  of  the  tread  is  cut  square 
off  and  flush  with  the  string  and 
riser.  Both  strings  in  this  in- 
stance are  open  strings.  Usually 
in  stairs  of  this  kind  the  ends  of 
the  treads  are  rounded  off  simi- 
lar to  the  front  of  the  tread,  and 
18.  the  ends  project  over  the  strings 

the  same  distance  that  the  front 

edge  projects  over  the  riser.  If  a  moulding  or  "  cove "  is  used 
under  the  nosing  in  front,  it  should  be  carried  round  on  the  string 
to  the  back  edge  of  the  tread,  and  cut  off  square,  for  in  this  case 
the  back  edge  of  the  tread  will  be  square.  The  riser  is  shown  at 
r,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  it  runs  down  behind  the  tread  on  the 
back  edge,  and  is  either  nailed  or  screwed  to  the  tread.  This  is 
the  American  practice,  though  in  England  the  riser  usually  rests 
on  the  tread ;  it  is  much  better,  however,  for  general  purposes,  that 
the  riser  go  behind  the  tread,  as  it  tends  to  make  the  whole  stairs 
much  more  strong  and  rigid. 

Fig.  19  shows  the  customary  way  American  workmen  put  their 
risers  and  treads  together.  T,  T  show  the  treads;  R,  R  the  risers- 
s,  s  the  string ;  o,  o  the  cove  moulding  under  the  nosing  x,  X. 
B,  B  show  the  blocks  that  hold  the  tread  and  risers  together. 
These  blocks  should  be  from  four  to  six  inches  long,  and  made  of 
very  dry  wood.  Their  section  may  be  from  one  to  two  inches 
square.  On  a  tread  three  feet  long,  three  of  these  blocks  should 
be  used  at  about  equal  distances  apart,  putting  the  two  outside  ones 
about  s;x  inches  from  the  strings.  They  are  glued  right  in  the 
angle.  Warm  the  blocks,  then  coat  the  two  sides  with  good  strong 
glue;  then  put  in  position  and  "  rub  "  the  block  to-and-fro,  pressing 
it  close  into  the  angle  until  you  cannot  move  it  any  further;  let  it 
stand  a  day  or  two  until  quite  dry  and  hard,  and  the  work  so  far 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    KASY. 


29 


will  be  complete.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  riser  has  a  lip  on  the 
upper  edge  which  enters  into  a  groove  in  the  tread.  This  lip  is 
generally  about  fo  inch  long,  and  may  be  ^  or  ^  an  inch  in 
thickness.  Care  must  be  taken  in  getting  out  the  risers,  that  they 
are  not  made  too  narrow,  as  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  lip. 


Fig.  19. 

If  the  riser  is  a  little  too  wide  it  will  do  no  harm,  as  the  ovenvidth 
may  hang  down  below  the  tread;  but  it  must  be  made  the  exact 
width  where  it  rests  on  the  string.  The  treads  must  be  made  the 
exact  width  required  before  they  are  grooved  or  the  nosing  worked 
on  the  outer  edge.  The  lip  or  tongue  on  the  riser  should  fit  snug 
in  the  groove  and  "  bottom."  By  following  these  last  instructions, 
and  seeing  that  the  "blocks"  are  well  glued  in,  a  good  solid  job 
will  be  the  result. 


3° 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


At  Fig.  20  a  scheme  for  the  construction  of  the  tread  and  riser 

is  shown.     The  tread  a  has  a  lip  worked  on  it  at  the  back  edge, 

which  enters  a  groove  ploughed  in  the  riser.  The  riser  also  has  a 
lip  left  on  the  upper  edge,  which  goes  into 
a  groove  made  in  the  tread  similar  to  the 
method  shown  at  Fig.  19.  The  cove  is 
shown  at  b,  and  the  angle  block  is  also 
represented.  This  makes  a  very  solid 
step  when  well  put  together,  and,  where 
the  stairs  are  to  be  of  the  better  kind,  this 
method  of  constructing  the  step  may  be 
adopted  with  advantage.  This  method  is 

a  favorite  one  with   English   stair-builders,  and  has  proved  to  be  a 

substantial  one,  though  it  costs  a  little  more  than  the   American 

method. 

I  show  another  scheme  of  putting  the  tread  and  riser  together  at 

Fig.  21.     Here  it  will  be  seen  neither  the  tread  or  riser  is  "  lipped," 

but  the  cove  or  "  scotia  "  is 

let  into   the   tread   and   the 

face  of  the  riser  is   brought 

close  up  to  it.     It  is  claimed 

for    this    method    that    the 

tread    is  not    weakened    by 

being   grooved  so   far  away 

from   the    point    of   nosing, 

and  thus  rendered  less  liable 

to  split  away.     For  my  part 

I  see    no  advantage  in  this 

method   over   either   of    the 

methods  shown,  and  I  know, 

from    experience,    that     the 

chances  of  rupture  or  separa- 
tion, at  the  junction  of  tread 

and    riser,    is    much    greater 

than    when    constructed    on 

either  of  the  methods  shown  at  Figs.  19  or  20.    It  will  be  seen  at  A 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY.  31 

that  the  riser  rests  on  the  tread,  which  in  this  is  decidedly  bad  con- 
struction. This  method  of  building  the  step  is  quite  common  in 
France,  Italy,  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  but  is  seldom 
used  in  England  or  the  United  States.  The  angle  block  in  this 
illustration  is  represented  as  being  a  right-angled  triangle;  this  is 
unnecessary,  and  seems  to  me  a  waste  of  time;  a  square  block 
answers  the  purpose,  and  is  much  easier  made  and  applied. 

I  have  now,  I  think,  pretty  clearly  explained  the  methods  of 
building  a  common  open  stair,  such  as  may  be  used  for  stoops, 
verandas  and  cellars,  or  other  places  where  strength  and  conven- 
ience are  of  more  importance  than  appearances,  so  for  the  present 
I  will  leave  this  class  of  stairs  or  steps  and  endeavor  to  explain  the 
way  "  housed  strings  "  are  laid  out  and  prepared  to  receive  the  ends 
of  riser  and  tread. 

If  it  is  desired  to  build  a  flight  of  stairs  where  the  riser  is  6^ 
inches,  and  the  tread  io*4  inches,  and  wish  to  have  housed  strings 
on  both  sides  of  the  flight,  the  proper  way  will  be  to  build  up  all 
the  treads  and  risers  first,  putting  a  tread  and  a  riser  together  until 
we  have  the  number  required.  The  blocks  should  all  be  glued  in 
place,  and  the  risers  and  treads  made  the  proper  width  and  thick- 
ness, and  put  together  exactly  at  right  angles  or  square  with  each 
other;  then  cut  off  to  the  exact  length  and  square  up  the  ends. 
This  done,  lay  the  separate  steps  carefully  aside  until  you  are  ready 
to  put  the  stairs  together. 

The  nosings  on  the  treads,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22  are  semicircular 
or  "  half-round,"  as  the  workmen  say;  and  this  is  the  best  form  of 
nosing,    as    it    is    neat    and    easily 
wrought,    and     the    recess    in    the 
"  housed  "  string  may  be  formed  for 
its  reception  by  using  a  centre-bit  or 
augur  the   proper  size.     Let  me  here 
suggest  that  Clark's   patent   expand- 
ing bit  is  perhaps   the  best   tool  for 
this  work. 

Gauge  lightly  a  line  from  the  upper 
edge  of  the  string,  the   distance  in-  y\,,.  •>•>. 


32  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE   EASY. 

tended  to  stand  above  the  treads  as  shown  in  the  dotted  line. 
On  this  line  apply  the  pitch-board  as  explained  on  previous 
pages.  In  laying  out  housed  strings  it  is  as  well  to  take  the 
fence  off  the  pitch-board,  as  it  can  be  handled  much  better 
yvithout  it,  as  the  long  side  will  have  to  be  kept  close  to  the 
gauge  line,  to  insure  good  work.  The  top  lines  for  treads,  and 
the  face  lines  for  risers,  are  the  lines  that  define  the  step,  and 
cannot  be  changed;  but  the  back  line  of  the  riser  and  the  lower 
line  of  the  tread  should  be  made  to  run  so  that  the  housing  or 
groove  will  be  wider  at  the  under  side  of  the  string  than  at  the 
junction  of  the  riser  and  tread  at  the  nosing,  where  the  grooves  will 
be  the  same  width  as  the  riser  and  tread  are  in  thickness  separately. 
The  nosing  projects  over  the  riser,  as  will  be  seen,  and  to  mark  this 
portion  out  it  is  usual  to  make  a  template  or  pattern  for  the  pur- 
pose. Indeed,  it  is  best  to  make  a  template  to  lay  out  the  whole 
housing  of  the  tread,  and  in  shape  like  the  shaded  part  shown  in 
the  illustration. 

The  reason  the  grooves  are  left  wider  at  the  back  edge  of  tread 
is  so  that -a  wedge  can  be  driven  between  the  tread  and  the  lower 
edge  of  the  groove,  to  force  the  top  side  of  the  tread  close  to  the 
upper  edge  of  the  groove,  thus  making  a  tight  joint  and  insuring 
strength  and  rigidity  to  the  whole  structure.  The  risers  are  iilso 
wedged  in  place,  as  will  be  shown  in  Fig.  23.  After  the  treads  and 
risers  are  laid  out  on  the  string,  a  sharp-pointed  knife  blade  should 
be  used  to  mark  the  lines  for  the  face  of  the  riser  and  the  top  of 
the  tread,  then  a  fine  tenon  saw  should  be  used  to  saw  down  to  the 
exact  depth.  This  will  not  be  difficult  to  perform  when  the  hole 
forming  the  nosing  recess  has  been  bored  to  the  proper  depth.  A 
gauge  line  should  be  made  on  the  back  edge  of  the  string  to  indi- 
cate the  depth  of  the  housing.  Care  should  be  taken  in  removing 
the  w^ood  from  the  grooves  that  too  much  is  not  taken  or  the  grooves 
made  too  deep.  A  gauge  for  trying  the  depth  may  be  made  out 
of  a  piece  of  hard  wood,  say  about  four  inches  long  and  three 
inches  wide,  by  about  one-half  inch  in  thickness.  Make  a  tenon 
on  the  centre  of  one  end,  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  width, 
and  cut  the  shoulders  back  sufficiently  far  enough  to  admit  the 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


33 


tenon  being  long  enough   to  touch  the  bottom  of  the  groove  or 
housing,  when  the  shoulders  rest  on  the  face  of  the  string. 

At  Fig.  23  I  show  a  sectional  elevation  through  the  steps.     The 
Heads,  /,  /,  and  the  risers,  r,  ;*,  are  shown  in  position.     These  are 
secured,  as  will  be  seen   by  means  of  the  wedges,  x,  x,  and  y,y, 
which  are  to  be  well  covered   with 
glue  before  they  are  inserted  and 
driven    home.     Stairs   made   after 
this  manner  are  strong   and    per- 
fectly solid  under  foot. 

I  hare  now  shown  you  the  way 
to  make  an  open  string,  and  how 
to  make  a  housed  string.  There 
are  several  other  methods  of  mak- 
ing a  stair  string  than  those  shown  you  already ;  one  way  is  to  form 
two  tenons  on  the  end  of  the  tread,  which  fit  into  mortises  cut 
through  the  string.  This  method  makes  a  very  strong  stair  if  the 
string  is  sufficiently  wide  enough  to  allow  for  the  loss  of  strength 
caused  by  making  the  mortises. 

At  Fig.  24  several  ways  of  forming  an  open  string  are  shown. 


Fie.  23. 


Fig.  24. 


Different   methods  of  uniting   the   risers    and   treads    are    shown. 
They    may    be    grooved    and    tongued,    as    in    steps  5  and  6,  or 


34  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

feathered  as  in  step  4,  or  rabbeted  as  at  step  3 ;  in  every  case  the 
joint  should  be  glued  and  blocked.  Sometimes  the  riser  is  housed 
into  the  tread  as  at  x.  The  tread  is  also  sometimes  tongued  into 
the  riser,  but  this  is  not  good  construction,  and  should  be  avoided. 
R,  s  show  a  rough  string  or  scantling,  having  pieces,  r,  b,  steps  2, 
3  and  4  nailed  or  screwed  on  to  it  to  support  the  treads.  Triangu- 
lar pieces  may  be  nailed  on  the  top  edge  of  the  scantling  to  sup- 
port the  treads  as  shown  at  steps  5  and  6.  A  rough  string,  cor- 
responding to  the  open  string,  may  be  used  in  place  of  any  of  the 
foregoing  methods.  The  under  edge  of  all  rough  strings  should 
be  made  to  coincide  with  the  lower  edge  of  the  furring  or  cleat 
nailed  on  the  inside  lower  edge  of  the  outside  cut  string,  and  so 
arranged  that  the  lathing  will  nail  on  the  furring,  the  rough  strings, 
and  the  lower  edge  of  the  wall  string. 

I  have  now  described  several  methods  of  dealing  with  strings, 
but  there  still  are  a  few  other  things  connected  with  strings,  both 
housed  and  open,  that  will  be  necessary  to  explain  before  you  can 
proceed  to  put  up  a  fair  flight  of  stairs.  The  connection  of  the 
wall  string  to  the  base  of  the  lower  and  upper  floors,  and  the  man- 
ner of  affixing  the  outer  or  cut  string  to  the  upper  joist  and  to  the 
newel,  are  matters  that  must  not  be  overlooked,  and  I  intend  to 
show  how  these  things  are  accomplished,  in  due  time.  I  will  pro- 
ceed now  to  describe  the  method  of  finishing  the  tread  and  riser  at 
the  end  of  the  step  that  rests  on  the  outer  string. 

Fig.  25  gives  two  views  of  a  portion  of  a  better-class  stair,  a  stair 
with  cut  and  mitered  string,  or  open  string  stair.  In  referring  to  the 
plan,  ws  shows  the  wall  string;  RS  the  rough  string  placed  there 
to  give  the  structure  strength  ;  and  o  s  the  outer  or  cut  string.  At 
a,  a  the  ends  of  the  risers  are  shown,  and  it  will  be  noticed  they 
are  mitered  against  the  vertical  or  riser  line  of  the  string,  thus  pre- 
venting the  end  wood  of  the  riser  from  being  seen.  The  other  end 
of  the  riser  is  in  the  housing  in  the  wall  string.  The  outer  end  of 
the  tread  is  also  mitered  at  the  nosing,  and  a  piece  of  stuff  made  or 
worked  like  the  nosing  is  mitered  against,  or  returned at  the  end  of 
the  tread.  The  end  of  this  returned  piece  is  again  returned  on 
to  the  string,  as  shown  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  cut, 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


35 


cove  in  this  case,  is  also  re- 


I   8 


at  n.     The  moulding,  which  is  a 
turned     round      the 
string  and  into  itself. 

The  mortises 
shown  at  the  black 
points,  B,  B,  B,  etc., 
are  for  the  balusters. 
It  is  always  the 
proper  thing  to  saw 
the  ends  of  the  tread 
ready  for  the  balus- 
ters before  they  are 
attached  to  the 
string,  then  when 
the  time  arrives  to 
put  up  the  rail  the 
back  end  of  the 
mortise  may  be  cut 
out,  when  the  tread 
will  be  ready  to  re- 
ceive the  baluster. 
The  mortise  is  dove- 
tailed, and,  of  course, 
the  tenon  in  the  bal- 
uster must  be  made 
to  suit.  The  tread  is  finished  on  the  bench,  and  the  return  nosing 
is  fitted  to  it  and  tacked  on  so  that  it  may  taken  off  to  insert  the 
balusters,  when  the  rail  is  being  put  in  position. 

At  Fig.  26  I  show  the  end  of  a  step  on  a  cut  and  mitered  string, 
which  is  bracketed.  B  shows  the  bracket  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  end  is  finished.  Brackets  on  stairs  are  generally  about  fo  of 
an  inch  thick,  and  may  be  of  almost  any  design  that  is  in  keeping 
with  the  surroundings.  When  a  stair  is  bracketed,  the  point  of 
the  riser  on  its  string  end  should  be  left  standing  past  the  string  the 
thickness  of  the  bracket,  and  the  end  of  the  bracket  mitres  against 
it,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of  showing  end  wood  or  joint.  The 


JOS 


Fig.  25. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


cove  should  finish  inside  the  length  of  the  bracket,  and  the  nosing 

should  finish  just  outside  the 
length  of  the  bracket.  When 
brackets  are  employed  they 
should  continue  along  the  cyl- 
inder, and  all  around  the  well 
hole  and  trimmers,  though  they 
may  be  varied  to  suit  condi- 
tions when  continuously  run- 
ning on  a  straight  horizontal 
facia.  A  number  of  designs 
Fig  26  for  brackets  will  be  shown 

further  on. 

Fig.  27  shows  the  manner  in  which  a  wall  string  is  finished  at 
the  foot  of  the  stairs,  s  shows  the  string  with  a  moulding  wrought 
on  the  upper  edge.  This  moulding  may  be  a  simple  ogee,  or  may 


ronsist  of  a  number  of  members,  or  may  be  only  a  bead,  or  the 
edge  of  the  string  may  be  left  quite  plain;  this  will  be  regulated  in 
a  great  measure  by  the  style  of  finish  in  the  hall,  or  wherever  the 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


37 


stairs  are  placed.  B  shows  a  portion  of  the  baseboard,  the  top  edge 
of  which  has  the  same  finish  as  the  top  edge  of  the  string.  B  and 
A  together  show  the  junction  of  the  string  and  base.  The  dotted 
line  shows  when  a  piece  of  stuff  has  been  glued  on  to  the  string  to 
make  it  wide  enough  at  the  junction  to  get  the  ease-off  or  curve. 
F  F,  show  the  blocks  glued  in  the  angle  of  the  steps  to  make 
them  firm  and  solid. 


Fig.  28. 

The  Figure  28  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  wall  string  s  is 
finished  at  the  top  of  the  stairs.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  mould- 
ing is  worked  round  the  ease-off  at  A  to  suit  the  width  of  the  base 
at  B.  The  string  is  cut  over  the  floor  horizontally  and  vertically 
or  plumb  against  the  joists.  The  plaster  line  under  the  stairs  and 
on  the  ceiling  is  also  shown. 

Fig.  29  shows  the  cut  or  open  string  at  the  foot  of  the 
stairs,  and  the  manner  of  dealing  with  it  at  its  junction  with 
the  newel  post  K.  The  point  of  the  string  should  be  mor- 


38  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

tised  into  the  newel  two,  three,  or  four  inches,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  and  the  mortise  made  in  the  newel  should  be  made 
near  the  centre,  so  that  the  centre  of  the  baluster  will  be  directly 
opposite  the  central  line  of  the  newel  post.  The  proper  Avay  to 
manage  this  is  to  measure  the  central  line  of  the  baluster  on  the 
tread,  and  then  make  this  line  correspond  with  the  central  line  of 
the  newel  post.  By  a  careful  attendance  to  this  matter,  much 
trouble  will  be  avoided  where  a  turned  cap  is  used  to  receive  the 


Fig.  29. 

lower  part  of  the  rail.  The  lower  riser,  in  a  stair  of  this  kind,  will 
be  something  shorter  than  the  ones  that  follow  it,  as  it  must  be  cut 
between  the  newel  and  the  wall  string.  A  portion  of  the  tread,  as 
well  as  the  riser,  will  also  "  butt "  against  the  newel,  as  shown  at  w. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY.  39 

If  there  is  no  spandril  or  wall  under  the  open  string  it  may  run 
down  to  the  floor,  as  shown  at  o.  The  piece  o  is  glued  on  to  the 
string,  and  the  moulding  is  worked  on  the  curve. 

If  there  is  a  wall  under  the  string  s,  then  the  base  B,  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines,  will  finish  against  the  string,  and  it  should  have  a 
moulding  stuck  on  its  upper  edge  the  same  as  the  one  on  the  lower 
edge  of  the  string,  if  any,  and  this  moulding  should  mitre  into  the  one 
on  the  string.  When  there  is  a  base  the  piece  o  is  dispensed  with. 

The  square  of  the  newel  should  run  down  by  the  side  of  a  joist, 
as  shown,  and  be  firmly  secured  to  it  by  iron  knees  or  other  suit- 
able devices.  If  the  joist  run  the  other  way,  try  and  get  the 
newel  post  against  it,  if  possible,  either  by  furring  out  the  joist  or 
cutting  a  portion  off  the  thickness  of  the  newel.  The  solidity  of  a 


Fig.  30. 

stair,  and  the  firmness  of  the  rail,  depend  very  much  on  the  rigidity 
of  the  newel  post. 

Fig.  30  shows  how  the  cut  string  is  finished  at  the  top  of  the 
stairs.  This  illustration  requires  no  explanation  after  the  foregoing 
lias  been  examined. 

So  far  I  have  dealt  with  those  stairs  having  a  newel  at  the  bot- 
tom only,  but  it  is  just  as  well  here  to  let  the  reader  understand 
that  there  are  many  modifications  of  straight  and  return  stairs,  that 


4o 


STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 


have  from  two  to  four  and  six  newels.  When  any  of  these  condi- 
tions arise,  the  treatment  of  strings  at  their  finishing  points  may 
necessarily  be  somewhat  different  than  that  described,  but  the  gen- 
eral principles,  as  shown  and  explained,  will  hold  good.  I  do  not 
intend,  however,  to  leave  the  subject  here,  as  I  want  to  make 
everything  as  clear  to  the  student  as  possible,  so  will  give  a  few 
examples  of  stairs  having  more  than  one  newel. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  and  illustrate  neweled  stairs,  it  will 
be  proper  to  say  something  about  the  "  well,"  or  opening  in  the 
floors  through  which  the  traveler  on  the  stairs  ascends  and  de- 
scends from  one  floor  to  another. 

Fig.  31  shows  a  well-hole,  and  the  manner  of  trimming  it.  In 
this  case  the  stairs  are  placed  against  the  wall,  but  this  is  not  neces- 
sary in  all  cases,  as  the  "  well-hole  may  be  placed  in  any  part  of 
a  building. 

The  arrangement  of  the  trimming  varies  according  as  the  joists 
are  at  right  angles  to  or  parallel  to  the  wall  against  which  the  stairs 
are  'built.  In  the  former  case  the  joists  are  cut  short  and  tusk- 
tenoned  into  the  heavy  trimmer  T  T,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  This 


n 

>\ 

\               ffi* 

I  ' 

11  U 

n 

T. 

r 

TJ 

'A 

i  .       J 

\ 

gs 

-  -''  - 

'^ffifijjjjp-.-                                  y$%$/ffiffi" 

^ffiffifz?^' 

Fig.  31. 

trimmer  is  again  tusk -tenoned  into  two  heavy  joists,  TJ,  T  j,  which 
form  the  ends  of  the  "  well-hole."  These  heavy  joists  are  called 
trimming  joists,  and  as  they  have  to  carry  a  much  heavier  load  than 
other  joists  on  the  same  floor,  they  are  left  much  heavier.  Some- 
times two  or  three  joists  are  put  together,  side  by  side,  and  are  bolted 
or  spiked  together  to  give  them  the  desired  unity  and  strength. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


If  the  opening  runs  parallel  with  the  joists,  the  timber  forming 
the  side  of  the  "  well-hole"  might  be  left  a  little  heavier  than  the 
other  joists,  as  it  will  have  to  carry  short  trimmers,  T  j,  T  j,  and 
the  joists  running  into  them.  The  method  shown  here  is  more 
particularly  adapted  to  brick  buildings,  but  there  is  no  reason  why 
the  same  system  may  not  be  applied  to  frame  buildings.  Usually, 
in  cheap  frame  build- 
ings, the  trimmers  are  ~ 
spiked  against  the  ends 
of  the  joists,  and  the 
ends  of  the  trimmers  are 
supported  by  being 
spiked  to  the  trimming 
joists  T  j,  T  j.  This  is 
not  very  workmanlike, 
or  very  secure,  and  I 
would  advise  its  discon- 
tinuance, as  it  is  not 
nearly  so  strong  or  dur- 
able as  the  old  method 
of  framing  the  joists  and 
trimmers  together. 

I  show  at  Fig.  32  a 
stair  with  three  newels 
and  a  platform. 

In  this  example  the 
first  tread,  No.  i,  stands 
forward  of  the  newel 
post  two-thirds  of  its 
width.  This  is  not  ne- 
cessary in  every  case, 
but  is  sometimes  done 
to  suit  conditions  in  the 
hallway.  The  second 
newel  is  placed  at 
twelfth  riser,  and  sup 


42  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

ports  the  upper  end  of  the  first  cut  string,  and  the  lower  end  of  the 
second  cut  string.  The  platform,  12,  is  supported  by  joists  framed 
into  the  wall  and  fastened  against  a  trimmer,  which  runs  from  the 
wall  to  the  newel  along  the  line  12.  This  is  the  case  only  when 
the  second  newel  runs  down  to  the  floor.  If  the  second  newel 
does  not  run  down  to  the  floor,  the  framework  supporting  the  plat- 
form will  need  being  built  on  studding.  The  third  newel  stands 
at  the  top  of  the  stairs,  and  is  fastened  to  the  joists  of  the  second 
floor,  or  to  the  trimmer,  something  after  the  fashion  of  fastening  as 
shown  at  Fig.  29.  In  this  example  the  stairs  have  sixteen  risers 
and  fifteen  treads — the  platform  or  landing,  12,  making  one  tread. 
The  figures  16  show  the  floor  in  the  second  story. 

This  style  of  stair  will  require  a  well-hole  in  shape  about  as  the 
plan  shown,  and,  where  strength  is  required,  the  newel  at  the  plat- 
form should  run  from  floor  to  floor,  and  act  as  a  support  to  the 
joists  and  trimmers  on  which  the  second  floor  is  laid. 

Perhaps  the  best  way  to  go  about  building  these  stairs  by  a  new 
beginner  will  be  to  "  lay  out "  the  work  on  the  lower  floor  in  the 
exact  place  where  they  are  going,  making  everything  full  size. 
There  will  be  no  difficulty  in  doing  this,  and  if  the  position  of  the 
first  riser  and  the  three  newel  posts  are  accurately  defined,  the 
building  of  the  stairs  will  be  an  easy  matter.  Plumb  lines  may  be 
raised  from  the  lines  on  the  floor,  and  the  positions  of  the  pint  form 
and  each  riser  easily  determined.  Not  only  is  it  best  to  line  out 
on  the  floor  stairs  having  more  than  one  newel,  but  it  is  perhaps 
the  safest  way  for  a  new  beginner  to  line  out  in  exact  position  on  ///<? 
floor  the  points  over  which  the  treads  and  risers  of  any  kind  of  stairs 
should  stand.  By  adopting  this  rule,  and  seeing  that  the  strings 
and  riser  and  tread  lines  correspond  exactly  with  the  lines  on  the 
floor,  many  cases  of  annoyance  will  be  avoided. 

At  Fig.  33  I  show  a  stair  with  a  half-space  landing.  The  treads 
in  the  lower  flight  are  omitted,  so  as  to  show  the  strings  and  risers. 
A  portion  of  the  steps  of  the  upper  flight  is  broken  away  in  order 
to  expose  to  view  the  construction  of  the  flight  below. 

In  this  stair  the  wall  string  w  s,  and  the  outer  string  board  o  s, 
are  constructed  as  shown  in  Figs.  29  and  30.  with  intermediate 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


43 


Fig.  33. 


44  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

rough  strings,  if  deemed  necessary.  The  outer  strings  are  tenoned 
into  the  newels,  and  so  are  the  first  and  last  risers  ot  the  flight. 
The  outer  strings  of  the  upper  flight  and  that  of  the  lower  flight 
are  on  the  same  vertical  plane,  or,  in  other  words,  they  are  directly 
one  over  the  other,  so  that  if  the  plan  of  the  upper  flight  was  com- 
plete the  outer  string  of  the  upper  would  overlap  and  hide  the 
outer  string  of  the  lower  flight.  In  the  same  way,  if  the  number 
of  steps  in  each  flight  were  the  same,  the  newel  N3  of  the  upper 
flight  would  in  plan  exactly  cover  the  newel  N  of  the  lower  flight, 
being  immediately  over  it.  The  hand-rail  on  the  plan  is  not  shown, 
but  in  the  upper  part  of  the  illustration  I  show  the  hand-rail  and  a 
sectional  view  of  the  stairs  in  position. 

In  the  sectional  elevation  the  treads  of  the  lower  flight  are  shown 
in  section,  though  omitted  from  the  plan. 

The  newels  are  fixed  to  trimming  joists,  T  j,  provided  in  the 
floors,  and  to  trimmers,  T,  across  the  staircase  at  the  landing.  The 
rough  strings,  R  s,  are  framed  in  between  these  trimmers,  and  rough 
brackets,  r  b,  rb,  are  nailed  alongside  of  them  to  support  the  steps. 
The  tread  of  the  top  step  is  frequently  united  to  the  boarding  of 
the  landing  by  a  rabbeted  joint.  This  is  advisable  if  the  space 
below  the  steps,  known  as  the  spandril,  is  to  be  made  use  of  as  a 
closet,  or  as  an  entrance  way  to  the  cellar.  In  such  a  case  the 
landing  and  the  parts  of  all  the  steps  should  be  matched  stuff,  and 
the  joints  made  perfectly  dust  tight. 

Fig.  34  shows  a  plan  and  sectional  elevation  of  a  stair  with  four 
newels.  This  is  termed  an  "  open  newel  stair,"  because  there  is  a 
square  well-hole  at  the  junction  of  the  two  flights.  The  plan  of 
this  stair  shows  a  quarter-space  landing.  The  boarding  or  floor- 
ing of  the  landing,  and  the  treads  of  the  lower  flight,  are  omitted, 
in  order  to  show  the  construction  below. 

On  the  sectional  elevation  the  treads  of  the  lower  flight  are 
shown  in  elevation,  though  omitted  from  the  plan.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  straight  portion  of  the  stairs  is  similar  to  what  has  been 
already  described.  The  winding  steps  are  constructed  as  follows: 
Bearers,  b  b,  carrying  the  risers,  r  r,  are  framed  into  the  newels,  their 
outer  ends  resting  in  the  wall  of  the  staircase.  Between  them  are 


STAIR   HIM. 1'lNi;    M\1>K    EASY. 


46 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


fixed  cross  bearers,  c  b.  These  would  not  be  necessary  if  the  stairs 
were  narrow,  but  are  inserted  here  for  the  sake  of  illustration.  In 
this  example  four  winders  are  introduced  to  show  the  defects  of 
such  an  arrangement.  Four  winders  should  never  be  placed  in  a 
stair  of  this  kind  where  it  is  possible  to  avoid  such  an  arrangement, 
as  it  will  be  seen  in  the  cut  that  the  width  of  the  treads  at  eighteen 
inches  from  the  newel  can  never  be  more  than  seven  inches.  Tims, 
the  treads  of  the  winders  must  be  narrower  than  those  of  the  fliers, 
and,  therefore,  often  inconvenient.  Four  winders,  however,  are 
often  employed,  as  they  are  sometimes  necessary  in  order  to  gain 
the  height  required  within  the  space  available. 

SECOND  FLOOR 


Fig.  35. 

At  Fig.  35  I  show  a  portion  of  a  stair  in  which  both  strings  are 
housed,  and  in  which  the  outer  string  is  finished  between  newels. 
This  style  would  suit  the  stairs  shown  at  Figs.  33  and  34. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


47 


The  hand-rail  and  style  of  balusters,  and  method  of  putting  them 
in,  are  also  shown.  As  the  rail  is  straight,  and  the  newel  and  bal- 
usters turned,  and  not  difficult  to  work,  it  was  deemed  proper  to 
insert  them  here  as  examples  of  a  neweled  stair  finished. 

Again,  at  Fig.  36  I  furnish  another  example  of  a  portion  of  fin- 
ished stairs  at  its  foot.  In  this  case  the  balusters  and  newel  are 
simply  made  from  square 
stuff,  dressed  and  cham- 
fered. The  strings  are 
housed  and  closed  in, 
and  the  balusters  on  the 
outer  string  simply  rest 
on  it,  only  having  a 
dowel  or  small  tenon  on 
their  lower  ends. 

The  ball  on  the  top 
of  the  newel  is  turned 
separately,  and  is  fast- 
ened by  means  of  a  pin 
which  is  glued  into  the 
newel ;  this  pin  should 
be  turned  on  the  ball. 
The  upper  ends  of  the 
balusters  fit  into  a  groove  made  the  right  width  and  about  half 
an  inch  deep  on  the  under  side  of  the  hand-rail. 

At  Fig.  37  I  show  a  portion  of  a  straight  stair  having  landings 
and  newels,  but  still  running  only  in  one  direction.  In  this  case 
there  is,  in  the  first  flight,  eleven  steps,  then  a  landing,  /T,  of 
greater  or  lesser  dimensions;  then  a  second  flight  begins  and  con- 
tinues until  the  next  floor  is  reached.  Sometimes,  when  the  stories 
are  more  than  ordinary  height,  there  are  two  or  more  landings  or 
"rests,"  and  there  may  be  only  seven  or  nine  steps  between  the 
landings.  The  mode  of  construction  is  shown  quite  clearly  in  this 
cut,  and  the  positions  of  strings,  carriages,  newels  and  joists  are  all 
represented.  The  letters  and  figures  exhibited,  both  on  plan  and 
elevation,  are  self  explanatory. 


Fig.  36. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


Fig.  37. 


STAlR-IHJILDlNt;    MAHK    KASY.  49 

With  regard  to  laying  out  the  strings  and  carriages  for  dog-legged 
and  winding  stairs,  I  may  say  that  I  will  explain  all  about  this  a 
little  further  on,  or  after  the  student  gets  a  little  more  familiar  with 
the  method  of  laying  out  the  stairs  on  plan.  It  is  in  order  now, 
however,  to  describe  and  explain  the  manner  of  dealing  with  the 
bodies  and  carriages  of  geometrical  stairs;  but  before  entering  into 
the  subject  largely,  it  may  be  as  well  to  make  a  few  preliminary  re- 
marks : 

A  geometrical  stair  has  no  newel  posts.  The  flights  are  arranged 
around  a  well-hole  in  the  centre,  sometimes  called  an  "open  newel" 
or  a  "  cylinder ;  "  and  each  step  is  secured  by  having  one  end 
housed  into  the  wall  string,  the  other  end  resting  upon  the  outer 
string,  but  partly  deriving  support  from  the  step  below  it. 

The  rail  of  a  geometrical  stair  is  uninterrupted  in  its  course  from 
top  to  bottom, 

The  treads  of  these  kind  of  stairs  should  be  strong  and  substan- 
tial, and  the  risers  and  tread  should  be  put  together  in  a  thorough 
workmanlike  manner.  Nowhere  on  a  building  is  the  best  kind  of 
workmanship  more  necessary  than  on  the  stairs,  and  more  particu- 
larly is  this  the  case  with  geometrical  stairs  than  with  straight  or 
dog-legged  stairs. 

The  cut  strings  of  these  kind  of  stairs  should  have  a  flat  bar  of  iron 
screwed  on  their  inner  edges  after  being  bent  to  the  proper  shape. 

Figs.  38  and  39  show  the  sectional  elevation  and  plan  of  a  geo- 
metrical stair  with  winders.  The  portion  of  the  staircase  shown  in 
Fig.  39  consists  of  six  fliers,  then  eight  winders,  then  seven  more 
fliers,  making  twenty-two  steps,  leading  to  a  half-space  landing  on 
the  floor  above;  from  this  the  stairs  again  rise,  commencing 
with  the  step  marked  23,  the  remainder  being  broken  off  to  show 
the  first  flight. 

The  treads  of  the  lower  flight  and  winders  are  also  omitted,  in 
order  to  show  the  supports  below. 

The  steps  are  formed  in  the  way  described  in  previous  pages, 
\\ith — in  this  case — feather-tongued  joints  between  the  treads  and 
risers. 

The   treads  and  risers  are  well  housed  into  the  wall  string,  the 


5° 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


outer  ends  resting  upon  a  cut  and  inhered  string,  and  intermediate 
support  is  afforded  by  a  rough  string,  to  the  side  of  which  is  nailed 
a  rough  notched  bracket  or  string,  cut  to  fit  the  under  side  of  the 
steps,  and  to  serve  like  an  ordinary  string. 


Fig.  38.-Elevation. 

The  strings  themselves  are  framed  in  between  the  trimming  joists 
provided  in  the  floors,  and  pitching  pieces,  PP,  projecting  from  the 
wall  at  the  level  of  the  first  and  last  winders;  one  of  these  latter  is 
shown  at  P  P,  but  the  other  is  covered  by  the  fifteenth  step. 


STAIR   Bl'll. DIM.    MADK    KASY.  51 

The  trimming  joist,  just  below  No.  i  step,  extends,  of  course, 
right  across  the  whole  width  of  the  stair — but  it  is  in  the  plan 
(Fig.  39)  supposed  to  be  broken  off  just  under  the  outer  string  in 
order  to  avoid  confusing  the  plan  of  the  first  step. 

The  winders  are  supported  throughout  their  length  by  bearers, 
b  b,  the  inner  ends  of  which  are  built  and  wedged  into  the  wall  of 


the    staircase,    the   outer  ends    being    tenoned    into    the    circular 
wreathed  portion  of  the  outer  string. 

The  inner  side  of  the  staircase  is  finished  and  embellished  by  a. 


5- 


STA1K-BUII.DINO    MADK    EASY. 


skirting  notched  on  tlie  under  side  to  fit  the  steps,  and — if  the  wall 
is  brick — it  is  secured  on  grounds  fastened  on  to  plugs  in  the  brick- 
work. If  the  walls  are  of  wood,  the  string  may  be  secured  quite 
easily. 

In  some  cases  two  crown  bearers  are  provided  for  each  winder, 
one  being  framed  in  between  longitudinal  bearers  in  the  centre  as 
well  as  at  the  wide  end. 

If  very  thick  treads  are  used  the  bearers  and  rough  strings  may 
be  omitted  altogether,  the  steps  being  wedged  into  the  wall  and 
projecting  without  further  support  till  they  reach  the  outer  string. 


Fig.  40.— Elevation. 


Fig.  40  is  a  portion  of  a  stair  somewhat  similar  to  that  shown  at 
Fig.  38,  but  with  different  description  of  joints  between  the  treads 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


53 


and   risers,  enlarged  so  as  to  show   the  plaster  and  other  details, 
which  could  not  be  made  clear  upon  a  very  small  scale. 

At  Fig.  41  I  show  a  plan  and  elevation  of  a  stair  having  a  cir- 


1  1 

, 

;  Iff 

J 

Fig.  41. — Plan  and  Elevation. 

cular  well-hole,  but  having  no  winders.  This  is  the  common 
straight  stair  with  a  newel  at  its  foot,  and  a  continuous  rail  from 
the  newel  to  top  of  stairs,  and  by  aid  of  a  wreath  around  the  whole 
well-hole  and  up  through  the  upper  stories  of  the  house  when  there 
are  two  or  more  floors. 

This  is  the  most  common  kind  of  stairs,  and  for  an  ordinary 
dwelling,  is  the  most  convenient.  The  manner  of  building  them 
is  easily  acquired,  and  no  workman  of  any  pretensions  should  rest 
satisfied  without  having  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which 
they  are  constructed  and  put  up.  Indeed,  every  country  carpen- 
ter who  has  skill  enough  to  superintend  the  building  of  a  good 
farm  house  should  be  able  to  build  a  stair  of  this  kind,  rail  and  all 
complete. 


54  STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 

In  Figs.  12  and  39,  I  show  plans  of  stairs,  the  lines  of  risers  of 
which  are  drawn  from  a  common  centre,  which  is  also  the  centre 
of  the  circle  that  forms  the  cylinder  or  well-hole.  In  a  stair  of 
this  kind  it  is  found  very  difficult  to  build  a  graceful  rail,  and  in 
order  to  avoid  the  ungracefulness  in  the  shape  of  the  rail  that 
usually  occurs  when  the  plan  of  the  stair  is  laid '  out  this  way,  an 
expedient  is  adopted,  which,  I  believe,  was  first  introduced  by  the 
French,  and  which  is  called  "  balancing"  or  "  dancing"  the  steps 
around  the  well,  that  is,  they  are  drawn  so  as  not  to  converge  to 
the  same  point,  but  so  that  each  is  directed  upon  a  different  point — 
formed  in  a  manner  somewhat  intricate,  and  which  will  be  de- 
scribed further  on. 


Fig.   42. 

In  Fig.  42,  the  first  four  and  the  last  four  steps  are  parallel,  but 
the  remainder  "balance"  or  "dance"  as  described  above.  The 
treads  are  numbered  in  this  illustration,  and  the  line  of  hand-rail- 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY.  55 

ing  H  R,  H  R,  is  clearly  shown.  The  trimmer  T  at  the  top  of  the 
stairs  is  also  shown,  and  the  rough  strings,  RS,  RS,  R  s,  or  carriages, 
are  represented  by  the  dotted  lines. 

This  plan  represents  a  stair  with  a  curtail  step,  and  a  scroll  hand- 
rail resting  over  the  curve  of  the  curtail  step.  This  kind  of  stair 
is  not  much  in  vogue  now  in  this  country,  though  it  is  adopted  oc- 
casionally, in  some  of  the  larger  cities.  The  use  of  heavy  newel 
posts  instead  of  the  curtail  steps,  is  the  prevailing  style  at  present. 

In  laying  out  geometrical  stairs,  the  steps  are  arranged  on  the 
principles  as  described  in  the  foregoing.  The  well-hole  in  the 
centre  is  first  laid  down  and  the  steps  arranged  around  it.  In 
circular  stairs  with  an  open  well-hole,  as  in  Figure  12,  the  hand- 
rail being  on  the  inner  side,  the  width  of  tread  proportioned  to  the 
use  of  steps  should  be  set  off  along  the  dotted  line,  18  inches  in 
from  the  hand-rail,  for  the  reasons  given  in  the  foregoing.  In 
stairs  with  the  rail  on  the  outside,  as  sometimes  occurs,  it  will  be 
sufficient  if  the  treads  have  the  proper  width  in  the  centre  of  their 
length. 

When  laying  out  stairs  practically  on  the  building  itself,  the 
height  to  be  gained  should  be  carefully  marked  out  upon  the 
"  story  rod"  as  before  described,  on  which  are  marked  divisions 
corresponding  to  the  number  and  height  to  the  risers ;  a  similar 
rod  is  marked  so  as  to  show  the  treads;  and  from  these  rods  the 
steps  should  be  carefully  marked  upon  the  walls  of  the  staircase. 

A  rod  should  also  be  prepared  having  marked  upon  it  the  exact 
width  of  the  stairs,  the  length  of  steps,  the  position  and  size  of 
newels,  and  also  the  size  of  the  wall  and  outer  strings,  showing  the 
thickness  and  depth  of  the  housings. 

The  expert  stair-builder,  of  course,  may  dispense  with  some  of 
these  precautionary  measures,  and  will  in  many  cases,  build  his 
stairs  in  the  "  shop,"  putting  them  all  together  ready  to  "  set  in 
position  "  before  they  leave  his  work-bench.  To  be  able  to  do 
this,  and  have  stairs  "fit"  without  further  "cutting"  or  "paring," 
after  it  leaves  the  shop,  is  an  achievement  that  any  workman  may 
be  justly  proud  of.  The  young  workman,  however,  should  follow 
the  directions  I  give  in  the  foregoing,  and  though  it  may  take  a 


56  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

little  more  time  at  the  commencement,  much  chagrin,  trouble  ami 
time  may  be  saved 'in  the  end,  and,  let  me  say  right  here,  that  in 
no  place  in  a  building  will  a  "  botched "  job  be  more  apparent 
than  on  a  stair  which  every  one  belonging  to  the  household,  and 
every  friend  and  visitor  of  the  family,  see  and  use  every  day ;  and 
a  stair  badly  constructed  or  "  botched  "  by  bad  workmanship  or 
carelessness  in  the  laying  out,  is  sure  to  bring  a  bad  and  unenvia- 
ble reputation  to  the  men  who  design  and  build  them. 

With  regard  to  having  the  steps  "dance"  around  the  well  this 
may  be  accomplished  either  by  calculation  or  graphically.  By  the 
first  method,  the  step  which  is  in  the  centre  of  the  circular  arc  is 
regarded  as  a  fixed  line,  and  the  divergence  from  parallelism  has  to 
be  made  between  it  and  the  extremes  either  way.  But  it  is  not 
necessary  to  begin  the  divergence  at  the  first  step,  nor  indeed  is  it 
advisable,  and  in  general  the  first  and  last  three  or  four  steps  are 
left  unaltered,  so  that  they  may  be  perfectly  parallel  to  the  land- 
ing. Suppose  then  that  the  divergence  is  fixed  to  commence 
at  the  fourth  step,  it  becomes  necessary  to  distribute  eight  spaces 
along  the  centre  of  the  string,  commencing  at  the  centre  line  of 
the  stairs,  which,  from  the  centre  line  to  the  fourth  riser,  shall  fol- 
low some  law  of  uniform  progression,  say  that  of  arithmetical 
progression,  as  being  the  most  simple.  The  progression  then  will 
consist  of  eight  terms,  the  sum  of  which  shall  be  equal  to  the  length 
from  the  centre  to  the  fourth  step.  Suppose  that  its  development 
is  66  inches,  a  length  composed  of  the  breadth  of  three  fliers,  3,  4, 
5,  namely,  36  inches,  and  the  sum  of  the  widths  of  the  ends  of  the 
five  winding  steps,  8,  9,  10,  n,  12,  namely,  30  inches, 

Subtracting  from 66  inches. 

The    width    of  eight  steps  of  the  same 

width  as  the    winders 48       " 

There   is  obtained  the  difference 18       " 

from  which  is  to  be  furnished  the  progressive  increase  to  the  steps 
as  they  proceed  from  the  centre  to  riser  No.  4.  Suppose  these  in- 
crements to  follow  the  law  of  the  natural  numbers  12345678, 
etc.,  the  sum  of  which  is  36,  divide  the  difference  18  by  36,  and 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


57 


the  quotient,  0.5  inches,  is  the  first  line  of  the  progression,  and  the 
steps  will  increase  as  follows : 

The  end  of  step  No.  n  =6.5 
"  10  =  7 

9  =  7-5 
"  «  8  =  8 

7  =  8.5 
«  6  =  9 

5  =  9-5 

"  "  4  =  10 


The  sum  of  which  is  66 

These  widths,  taken  from  a  scale,  are  to  be  set  off  on  the  line  of 
balusters,  and  from  the  points  so  obtained  lines  are  to  be  drawn 
through  the  divisions  of  the  centre  line.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  that 


Fig.  43. 


58  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

by  this  method,  and  by  varying  the  progression,  any  form  may  be 
given  to  the  curve  of  the  string. 

The  graphic  method,  however,  yet  to  be  described,  is  prefer- 
able to  the  method  by  calculation,  seeing  that  it  is  important  to 
give  a  graceful  curve  to  the  development  of  the  string,  and  we  will 
fully  explain  this  method  a  little  further  on. 


Fig.  44. 

Figs.  43  and  44  are  the  plan  and  elevation  of  a  geometrical 
stair,  composed  of  straight  flights,  with  quarter  space  landings,  and 
rising  15  feet  9  inches. 


STAIR-BUI  LDIXG    MADE    EASY. 


59 


The  first  flight  is  shown  in  Fig.  44,  'partly  in  section,  exhibiting 
the  carriage  c  c,  T  the  trimmer  joists  for  quarter  space,  and  v  the 
trimmer  joists  of  the  floor  below,  with  the  lower  end  of  the  iron 
baluster  fastened  by  a  screw  and  nut  </,  at  the  under  side  of  the 
trimmer  joist  v. 


Fig.  45. 

Fig.  45  exhibits  the  plan  and  Fig.  46  the  elevation  of  a  geo- 
metrical stair  with  straight  flights  connected  by  winders  on  the 
quarter  spaces. 

Fig.  47  shows  the  elevation  and  Fig.  48  the  plan  of  a  stair  hav- 
ing a  landing  at  the  centre  of  the  cylinder. 

The  strings  for  these  stairs  may  be  steamed,  and  bent  over  a 
cylinder;  or  they  may  have  grooves  cut  into  them  parallel  with 


6o 


STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 


STAlK-lil    II,HI.N(,    M\I>K    EASY. 


6l 


02  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

the  axis  of  the  stair,  and  the  grooves  filled  up  with  bars  of  wood 
carefully  glued  in,  and  the  whole  left  to  dry  when  bent  to  the 
proper  shape. 

Another  method  in  making  stairs  hollowed  in  the  face  to   the 
curvature  of  the  well-hole,  and  setting  out  as  much  of  the  string 


Fig.  48. 

on  each  piece  as  will  cover  its  width,  then  glueing  the  staves,  edge 
to  edge,  without  any  veneer.  This  method,  though  expeditious,  is 
not  safe. 

I  show  a  cylinder  at  Fig.  49  which  shows  the  manner  of  build- 
ing the  staves  edge  to  edge,  with  keys  of  wood  dovetailed  into  the 
backs  of  the  staves  at  the  joints, 


STAIR-HUILD1NG    MADK    KASY.  63 

Another  method  >s  sometimes  prac- 
ticed, when  the  curved  surface  is  of  great 
length  and  large  sweep,  as  in  the  back 
strings  of  circular  stairs.  In  this  a  por- 
tion of  cylindric  surface  is  formed  on  a 
solid  piece  of  plank  about  three  or  four 
feet  in  length ;  and  the  string  being  set 
out  on  a  veneer  board  sufficiently  thin  to 
bend  easily,  is  laid  down  round  the  curve, 
with  such  a  number  of  pieces  of  like  thick- 
ness as  will  make  the  required  thickness  of 
the  string-board.  In  working  this  method 
the  glue  is  introduced  between  the  veneers  with  a  thin  piece  of 
board,  and  the  veneers  quickly  strained  down  to  the  curved  piece 
with  hand-screws.  A  string  can  be  formed  in  this  way  to  almost 
any  length  by  glueing  a  few  feet  at  a  time,  and  when  that  dries, 
removing  the  cylindrical  curve  and  glueing  down  more,  till  the 
whole  is  completed. 

Several  other  ways  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  workman,  to 
build  up  a  good  solid  circular  string-board. 

At  Fig.  50  I  show  a  plan  of  a  semi-circular  stair  having  winders 
radiating  from  a  common  centre.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  car- 
riage or  rough  strings,  g,  A,  e,  /,  and/,  c  and  D  show  the  trimmer 
at  the  top  of  the  stair,  and  E  and  g  show  the  central  or  main  sup- 
ports. These  carriage,  or  string  pieces,  are  of  course  cut  out,  like 
an  ordinary  string. 

Fig.  5 1  shows  a  plan  of  an  elliptical  stair,  and  in  which  is  shown 
the  method  of  building  the  carriage  for  same. 

Fig.  52  is  the  longest  carriage,  A  B,  shown  in  the  plan;  it  is 
formed  of  one  pine  board,  1 1  inches  wide  by  3  or  4  in  thickness ; 
its  length  of  bearing  betwixt  the  walls  is  about  15  feet.  To  find 
the  best  position  for  the  carriages,  lay  a  straight  edge  on  the  plan, 
and  by  its  application  find  where  a  right  line  will  be  divided  into 
nearly  equal  parts  by  the  intersection  of  the  risers.  The  object  of 
this  will  readily  be  understood  if  it  is  considered  that  in  a  series  of 
steps  of  equal  width  and  risers  of  equal  height,  the  angles  will  be 


64 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADK    KASY. 


in  a  straight  line,  whereas  in  a  series  of  unequal  steps  and  equal 
risers,  the  angles  will  deviate  from  a  straight  line  in  proportion  to 
the  inequality  in  the  width  of  steps.  Notwithstanding  the  inequal- 
ity in  the  width  of  steps  which  thus  often  occurs,  it  seldom  Imp- 
pens  that  carriages  may  not  be  applied  to  stairs,  if  their  situation 
be  carefully  selected  by  the  means  above  mentioned.  The  double 


Fijr.  50. 

line,  A  B,  is  taken  from  the  plan  with  the  lines  of  risers  crossing  at 
various  angles  of  inclination.  These  lines  represent  the  back  sur- 
face of  each  riser,  according  to  the  number  on  ench.  The  double 
line,  A  B,  will  therefore  be  understood  as  representing  the  thickness 
of  the  piece.  Lines  drawn  from  the  intersections  of  each  of  the 
risers  perpendicularly  on  A  B,  Fig.  52,  will  present  the  width  of 


STAIR-BUH.DING    MADE    EASY. 


bevel  which  each  notching  will  require  in  the  carriage  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  wall.  No.  8  crosses  very  obliquely;  No.  9  with  some- 
what less  obliquity ;  No.  10  with  still  less,  and  the  obliquity  con- 
tinually diminishes,  till  at  13  the  crossing  is  at  right  angles,  pre- 


senting only  one  line.  The  remaining  numbers  are  bevelled  in  the 
reverse  direction,  gradually  increasing  to  No.  19,  where  the  car- 
riage enters  the  wall.  The  complete  lines  show  the  side  of 
the  carriage  next  the  well-hole,  while  the  dotted  lines  represent 


66 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY.  67 

the  side  next  the  wall.  The  most  expeditious  method  of  set- 
ting out  such  carriages  is  to  draw  them  out  at  full  size  on  a  floor. 
Having  first  set  out  the  plan  of  the  stairs  at  full  size,  take  off  the 
widtli  of  every  step,  in  the  order  in  which  it  occurs,  marking  that 
width,  and  at  right  angles  thereto  draw  the  connecting  riser,  thus 
proceeding  step  by  step  till  the  whole  length  of  the  carriage  is 
completed;  next  set  out  one  side  of  the  carriage  as  a  face  side  and 
square  over  to  the  back,  allowing  the  bevel  as  found  on  the  plan; 
then,  with  a  pair  of  compasses  prick  off  to  the  under  edge  at  each 
angle,  for  the  strength;  this  will  define  the  curvature  for  the  under 
side  with  its  proper  wind,  to  suit  the  ceiling  surface  of  the  stairs. 
The  bearer,  c  D,  Fig.  51,  is  a  level  piece  wedged  in  the  wall,  with 


Fig.  53. 


its  square  end  abutting  against  the  side  of  the  carriage,  A  B;  the 
dotted  line  on  the  upper  side  of  the  carriage,  Fig.  52,  and  the 
straight  dotted  line  on  its  under  side,  are  intended  to  show  the 
edges  of  an  u-inch  pine  board  previous  to  its  being  cut;  the 
shaded  part  at  each  end  shows  its  bearing  in  the  wall;  at  the  riser 


68  STAIR  BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

,8  is  shown  a  corpsing,  to  receive  the  lower  end  of  the  carriage, 
Fig.  54,  c  L;  and  at  the  riser  16,  a  similar  corpsing  to  receive  the 
carriage,  Fig.  55,  G  H;  Fig.  53  is  the  carriage,  E  F,  Fig.  51,  par- 
allel with  A  B,  Fig.  51,  against  which  the  front  string  is  nailed;  each 
of  the  last  mentioned  is  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  one 
already  described.  The  carriages,  Figs.  53,  54  and  55,  have  the 
number  of  the  risers  figured  on  them. 


This  method  of  framing  the  carriages  of  stairs  is  not  yet  much 
practiced.  It  was  introduced  more  than  forty  years  ago,  and  has 
given  greater  satisfaction  than  the  more  laborious  process  of  fram- 
ing for  every  step  which  is  not  only  weaker  from  the  greater  num- 
ber of  joints,  but  is  also  more  expensive.  It  is  now  gradually 
coming  into  use. 

In  circular  strings  the  string  board  for  the  circular  part  is  pre- 
pared in  several  different  ways.  Each  of  these  will  now  be  de- 
scribed, the  first  being  that  adopted  in  veneered  strings. 

One  indispensable  requisite  in  forming  a  veneered  string,  is 
called  by  joiners  a  cylinder;  it  is,  however,  in  fact,  a  semi-cylinder 
joined  to  two  parallel  sides.  An  apparatus  of  this  kind  must  first 
be  formed  of  a  diameter  equal  to  the  distance  betwixt  the  faces  of 
the  strings  in  the  stairs. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MA  UK.    F.ASY. 


Fiff.  65. 


Take  some  flexible  material,  as  a  slip  of  paper,  and  measure  tin- 
exact  stretch-out  of  the  circular  part  of  the  cylinder,  from  the 
springing  line  on  one  side,  to  the  springing  line  on  the  other.  I.a\ 
this  out  as  a  straight  line 
on  a  drawing-board ; 
then  examine  the  plan 
of  the  stairs,  and  meas- 
ure therefrom  the  pre- 
cise place  of  each  riser 
coming  in  contact  with 
or  near  to  the  circular 
part  of  the  well-hole  as 
it  intersects  on  the  line 
of  the  face  of  the  string, 
and  also  the  distance  of 
such  riser  from  the 
springing  lines.  These 
distances  should  all  be  carefully  marked  on  the  slip  of  paper  and 
transferred  to  the  drawing-board;  then,  with  the  pitch-board,  set 
out  the  development  of  the  line  of  steps,  by  making  each  step 
equal  to  the  width  found,  and  connecting  with  it  at  right  angles. 
its  proper  height  of  riser.  When  the  whole  development  has  been 
set  out  on  the  drawing-board,  mark  from  the  angles  of  the  steps 
downwards  the  dimension  for  the  strength  of  carriage;  by  this 
means  it  will  be  seen  what  shape  and  size  of  veneer  will  be  required. 
The  whole  of  the  setting  out  must  now  be  transferred  to  the  la. •«• 
of  the  veneer;  then  with  the  point  of  an  awl  prick  through  the  an 
gles  of  the  steps  and  risers,  and  trace  the  lines  on  the  back  as  well  as 
on  the  front;  the  veneer  must  now  be  bent  down  on  the  cylinder, 
bringing  the  springing  lines  and  centre  lines  of  the  string  to  mm 
cide  as  exactly  as  possible  with  those  of  the  cylinder;  the  whole 
string  must  then  be  carefully  backed  by  staving  pieces  glued  on  it. 
with  the  joints  and  grain  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  <  ylindei  ;  the  lines 
on  the  back  of  the  string  will  serve  to  indicate  the  quantity  •>!  the 
veneer  to  be  covered  by  the  staving;  the  \\lmle  must  l>e  all.me.l  i<> 
remain  on  the  cylinder  till  sufficiently  dry  and  film  ,  it  is  next  int.. I  t«> 


y0  STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 

the  work  by  cutting  away  all  the  superfluous  wood,  as  directed  by  the 
lines  on  the  face  of  the  veneer,  and  then  being  perfectly  fitted  to 
the  steps,  risers  and  connecting  string;  it  must  be  firmly  nailed  both 
to  the  steps  and  risers,  and  also  to  the  carriages;  each  heading  joint 
in  the  string  should  be  grooved  and  tongued  with  a  glued  tongue. 

There  is  another  method  of  gluing  up  the  strings  sometimes  prac- 
ticed. In  this  the  string  is  set  out  as  before  described,  but  instead 
of  using  a  thin  veneer,  an  inch  board  is  taken,  on  the  face  of  which 
the  development  of  steps,  risers,  springing  and  centre  lines  must  be 
carefully  set  out  as  before  ;  the  edge  of  the  board  must  be  gauged  from 
the  face,  equal  to  the  thickness  of  a  veener,  which  would  bend  round 
the  cylinder  ;  the  string  must  then  be  confined  down  on  the  work- 
bench, and  grooves  made  by  a  dado  plane  on  its  back  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  riser,  and  at  about  half  an  inch  distant  from  each  other, 
till  the  whole  width  of  the  cylindric  surface  is  formed  into  a  series 
of  grooves;  these  grooves  are  then  filled  with  keys  of  wood  which 
are  placed  in  as  the  string  is  bent  round  to  the  right  curve. 

For  wall  strings  hav- 
mS  larSe  or  l°ng  curves 
a  saw  kerf  in  the  direc- 
tion  of  the  riser,  or  in 
Fj     56  other    words,   the    kerf 

should  be  plumb  when 

the  string  is  in  position.  The  manner  of  cutting  these  kerfs  is 
shown  at  Fig.  56.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  kerfs  stop  at  the 
gauge  line  which  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  face  of  the 
stuff,  the  square  is  placed  there  to  show  that  the  lines  on  the  edge 
of  the  string  should  point  towards  the  common  centre  of  the  cylin- 
der. 

At  Fig.  57,  I  show  a  plan  of  a  stairs  with  winders  radiating  from 
different  centres,  and  show  the  strings  both  for  inner  and  outer  bear- 
ers, with  the  lines  for  carriage  timbers,  which  are  all  shown  in  posi- 
tion. On  the  lines  a1  P  and  c}  d*  are  marked  the  width  of  the 
treads.  From  the  line  &  ifi  in  the  plan  the  elevation  of  the  front 
string  is  constructed  ;  b  a  is  the  stretchout  of  the  starting  cylinder, 
ac  is  the  straight  part  of  the  string,  and  cd  the  stretchout  of  the  land- 


It 


STAIR-BUILDING   MADE   EASY. 


y2  STAIR-BUILDING   MADE   EASY. 

ing  cylinder.  After  laying  out  the  steps  and  risers  in  the  elevation, 
the  curved  line  representing  the  lower  edge  of  the  string  is  drawn. 
This  line  should  be  so  located  as  to  maintain  the  width  of  the 
string  about  alike  at  all  points  measuring  square  across.  Easements 
are  required  at  top  and  bottom,  and  must  be  obtained  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  preserve  the  average  width  of  the  string.  In  order  to 
complete  the  easement  within  the  string  itself,  it  is  often  necessary, 
as  shown  in  this  figure  at  d,  to  glue  two  or  three  inches  of  straight 
wood  on  to  the  cylinder  where  it  joins  the  facia.  This  may  be 
avoided  by  making  a  part  of  the  easement  on  the  straight  facia. 
Among  workmen  both  of  these  methods  are  employed,  some  giving 
preference  to  one  and  some  to  the  other — some  using  them  inter- 
changeably, depending  upon  the  particular  circumstances  of  the 
case.  The  dotted  lines  shown  in  the  elevation  of  the  front  string, 
in  those  portions  corresponding  to  the  cylinders  in  the  plan,  show 
the  lengths  of  the  several  pieces  of  cylinder  stuff  before  the  steps 
and  risers  are  cut  out.  In  making  the  string-piece,  the  line  of  its 
lower  edge  is  drawn  partly  by  hand,  as  shown  at  b  and  d,  partly 
by  marking  with  a  flexible  straight-edge  bent  into  the  cylinder, 
and  on  the  straight  part  by  bending  a  strip  of  wood  to  suit  the  curve 
required  and  marking  along  the  side  of  it. 

Referring  again  to  the  plan,  B2  D2  is  the  stretchout  of  the  wall 
string,  and  from  this  line  in  the  plan  the  elevation  of  the  wall  string 
is  to  be  constructed,  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  B  A  is  the  first, 
corresponding  with  B1  A1  in  the  plan.  From  A  to  c  is  the  sec- 
ond piece  corresponding  with  A1  c1  in  the  plan.  The  easements  run 
to  a  level  at  the  corners  A  and  c ;  likewise  at  the  top  and  bottom, 
where  they  join  the  base. 

At  Fig.  58,  I  show  a  plan  of  a  stairs  with  sixteen  risers  and  the 
winders  "dancing"  around  the  well-hole.  The  wall-strings  are 
shown  both  prepared  and  in  position  at  A  A,  B  B,  and  c  c.  The 
butt  of  B  joins  to  the  top  of  A,  and  the  butt  of  c  joins  to  the  top  of 
B.  The  connections  of  the  strings  will  be  easily  understood  by  a 
careful  examination. 

The  newel,  N,  in  this  case  is  of  large  diameter,  say  from  10  to  12 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY.  7* 

indies.     The  treads  are  ten  indies  wide,  and  the  well-hole  is  ten 
inches  in  diameter. 


Fijr.  58. 

At  Fig.  59,  I  show  a  stair  with  winders  radiating  to  a  common 
centre.  In  this  stair  there  are  thirteen  treads  and  fourteen  risei-. 
The  first  wall  string  is  omitted,  but  the  second  and  third,  n  and  c, 
are  shown.  After  mastering  the  details  of  Fig.  58,  there  will  l>e  no 
difficulty  in  understanding  this  with  the  aid  of  the  following  instruc- 
tions : 

B  is  the  cross-string.  Always  glue  up  cross-strings  for  stairs  of 
this  description,  10  12  14  or  16  inches  wide,  as  the  case  may  l>e. 
then  make  aline,  a  b;  from  that  line  square  off  the  end  of  yom  string. 
After  squaring  the  end  from  the  line  you  must  set  in  the  thi(  ki 
the  other  wall  string,  and  set  out  the  groove  (to  receive  the  tongue  of 
A);  then  set  on  the  other  half  of  kite-winder;  then  set  up  a  user 


74 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


square  with  the  winder ;  set  up  the  other  winders,  and  the  half-winder 
square  with  the  half-winder;  allow  tongue,  etc.,  as  before  descnbed. 
There  will  be  enough  stuff  to  form  all  easements,  etc. 

c  is  the  other  wall-string,  having  half  a  winder,  one  winder, 
three  flyers,  and  up.  The  up  is  a  riser  that  takes  on  to  the  land- 
ing. This  string  will  be  set  out  similar  to  the  first,  only  you  must 


Fig.  59. 

not  forget  the  up.  You  must  groove  the  winder  end  of  string  to 
receive  tongue  of  cross-string;  also  glue  a  piece  on  to  carry  out 
your  winder  and  form  the  easements.  When  you  are  setting  out 
strings  the  pitch-board  is  the  face  of  riser  and  top  of  tread  ;  so  you 
allow  the  thickness  of  the  riser  in  and  thickness  of  tread  down,  and 
a  little  more  for  wedging.  The  general  depth  for  housing  is  half  an 
inch.  In  all  cases  you  must  plow  and  tongue,  glue  joints,  etc. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY.  75 

In  A  I  have  not  shown  the  string  finished,  but  in  c  it  is  done. 
The  strings  are  prepared  as  in  A,  and  after  the  steps  are  glued  up, 
rounded  and  the  hollow  worked,  they  are  then  marked  as  shown 
in  c. 

I  now  show  how  the  outside  or  cut-string  and  well  are  prepared. 
In  getting  out  the  cut-string  I  suppose  you  to  have  a  board,  say  10 
inches  wide,  the  pitch-board  being  9  inches  on  the  going  and  6  inches 
on  the  riser.  Then,  by  squaring  the  pitch-board  across  from  the 
raking  side  to  the  angle  of  the  tread  and  riser,  you  willl  have  5 
inches,  thus  leaving  5  inches.  Then  make  a  template  5  inches 
wide,  and  apply  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  string,  and  the  pitch- 
board  to  that,  and  mark  off  your  steps.  Cut  the  going  square. 
The  risings  are  mitered.  The  back  edge  of  step  3,  and  the  front 
edge  of  step  10,  are  the  springing  lines  of  the  well-hole.  The 
string  must  be  left  longer  for  tenoning  or  halving  to  the  well-string. 
Before  applying  the  veneer  on  the  cylinder,  you  must  stretch  out 
your  well,  and  when  marking  the  springing  line  upon  the  veneer, 
set  up  your  steps  before  bending  it  on  the  cylinder,  so  that  when 
you  have  properly  blocked  and  glued  and  the  work  is  set,  it  can  be 
taken  off  the  cylinder  and  the  steps  cut.  It  is  then  ready  to  be 
fitted  to  the  other  strings. 

Fig.  60  shows  a  plan,  d,  of  a  stairs  with  a  quarter  turn,  and  four 
winders.  The  strings,  with  their  ease-offs,  are  also  shown  at  a  and 
c .  A  portion  of  the  inner  string,  c,  is  shown  at  If. 

The  outer,  or  wall  string,  is  shown  at  a,  with  portions  of  the 
fliers,  and  the  wide  ends  of  all  the  winders.  At  c,  portions  of  the 
upper  and  lower  strings  are  shown,  with  a  sectional  view  of  a  tew 
of  the  fliers,  and  all  the  narrow  ends  of  the  winders  in  the  cylin- 
der. This  illustration  is  clear  and  requires  no  further  description. 

Fig.  61  shows  the  plan  of  a  stairs  which  turn  around  a  central 
post.  This  kind  of  stair  is  frequently  used  in  large  stores  :md  in 
club-houses  and  other  similar  places. 

Fig.  62  shows  the  elevation  of  the  stairs  complete,  with  rail  and 
central  newel.  Stairs  of  this  kind  have  a  very  graceful  appear- 
ance if  judgment  is  used  in  planning  them.  They  are  not  very 
difficult  to  build,  as  the  following  details  will  show. 


76 


STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


Fig.  61. 


Fig.  63  exhibits  the  manner  of  framing  the  carriage.  The  pieces 
on  the  ends  of  the  risers  are  dovetailed  strongly  into  the  rough 
risers,  and  the  supports  under  the  treads  are  also  well  secured  into 
the  riser  and  to  each  other.  The  staving,  which  forms  a  kind  of 
barrel  around  the  lower  portion  of  the  post,  form  resting  points  for 
the  rough  risers,  which  are  secured  strongly  to  post  and  staves  on 
both  sides  of  the  barrel.  The  manner  of  securing,  notching  and 
arrangement,  is  clearly  shown  in  the  engraving. 

Fig.  64  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  ends  of  the  rough  riser 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


Fig.  62. 


STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 


So 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


are  finished,  showing  the  dovetailed  ends,  joints  and  a  flat  iron  bar 
screwed  to  the  built  string.  This  iron  bar  should  be  about  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch  thick,  and  not  less  than  three  inches  wide ;  the 

screws  should  be  heavy  and  not 
less  than  one  and  three-quar- 
ters of  an  inch  long.  A  thin 
veneer  should  be  bent  over  the 
outside  string,  and  notched 
nicely  under  the  tread.  This 
veneer  should  be  fastened  with 
glue  and  screws.  Furring 
should  be  used  over  and  be- 
low the  iron  bar,  so  as  to 
bring  the  face  of  the  wood 
work  a  little  more  than  flush 
with"  the  face  of  the  iron. 
When  well  made,  these  stairs 
are  very  strong,  and  it  is  sur- 
prising how  much  of  a  load 
they  will  bear  without  visible 
deflection. 

At  Fig.  65  I  show  an  eleva- 
tion of  the  stairs  shown  on 
the  plan  at  Fig.  50.  The 
well-hole  of  this  stair  is  semi- 
circular; the  student  will  no- 
tice how  gracefully  the  lines 
sweep  up  to  the  third  floor. 
This  kind  of  stair  looks  very 
well,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  winders  converge  to- 
wards the  common  centre,  which,  as  I  have  before  stated,  should 
be  avoided  when  possible,  and  this  may  be  in  almost  every  case. 

Fig.  66  shows  the  elevation  of  the  elliptical  stairs,  the  plan  of 
which  is  shown  at  Fig.  51.  This  style  of  stairs  is  perhaps  the 
handsomest  and  most  costly  that  can  be  built.  The  manner  of 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


8l 


Fig.  66. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


constructing  it  is  similar  to  that  of  building  a  semi-circular  stair. 
The  strings  may  be  "built  up"  over  a  semi-ellipse  form  made  for 
the  purpose,  and  glued  together  the  same  as  described  in  previous 


pages.  Veneers  should,  of  course,  be  glued  over  the  face  of  the 
strings  if  they  are  built  up  with  staves ;  if  the  strings  are  built  up 
with  long  thin  pieces  glued  together,  plenty  of  time  should  be 
given  them  to  dry  and  harden  after  gluing  before  they  are  used  or 
cut  for  treads  and  risers, 


STAIR-BUII.IM.V.    MU'I     I   \  gj 

It  will  be  noticed  that  on  this  stairs  the  en«ls  of  the  steps  are 
bracketed.  The  bracket  in  this  case  is  of  very  simple  form,  but  is 
one  that  has  been  very  much  used  by  stair-builders  in  times  past. 
Further  on  I  will  give  some  examples  of  brackets  that  are  in  more 
common  use  now.  In  many  good  houses  the  stair  bracket  is  dis- 
pensed with,  as  some  architects  think  their  use  is  in  bad  taste. 
Such  men,  however,  as  Wren,  Inigo  Jones,  Downing,  Hatfield 
and  Mullet  have  used  them  freely  and  with  complete  success,  and 
for  my  part,  I  do  not  think  a  main  stairs  in  any  building  worth  liv- 
ing in,  is  properly  finished,  if  the  exposed  outside  string  is  not 
bracketed. 

I  have  now  pretty  well  covered  the  whole  ground  of  building 
the  cases,  carriages  and  bodies  of  stairs,  but  there  will  be  cases 
and  conditions  arise  in  practice  that  I  may  not  have  provided  for, 
and  which  will  have  to  be  worked  out  by  the  ingenuity  and  skill  of 
the  workman.  Indeed,  there  are  many  things  in  stair-building  that 
cannot  well  be  foreseen,  but  which  will  not  present  any  insur- 
mountable difficulty  to  the  workman  of  ready  wit  and  expertness 
after  what  has  been  said  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

While  a  goodly  portion  of  the  matter  and  illustrations  in  this 
work  are  original,  and  published  for  the  first  time,  I  take  pleasuie 
in  acknowledging  that  a  large  portion  of  both  text  and  illustrations 
are  taken  from  quite  a  number  of  sources  that  are  recognized  as 
authoritative  on  the  subject  discussed.  Chief  among  the  source-' 
drawn  from,  I  may  mention:  "Building  Construction,"  vol.2; 
"  Newland's  Carpenters'  and  Joiners'  Assistant ;  "  "  Tarbuck  on 
Stairs;"  "  Hatfield's  American  House-Joiner;"  "Builder  and 
Wood-Worker;  "  "  Carpentry  and  Building  ;  "  etc.,  etc. 

In  most  cases,  the  position  and  general  plan  of  the  stairs  are  de- 
cided upon  by  the  architect,  where  one  is  employed,  but  the  ar- 
rangement, in  detail,  of  the  treads  and  risers  is  generally  left  to  the 
joiner  who  builds  them.  The  arrangement  of  the  risers  in  mil  to 
the  well-hole  requires  some  study,  for  the  "fall"  of  the  hand-rail 
depends  upon  their  position. 

This  has  been  partly  explained  before  and  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of,  for  many  stairs,  easy,  elegant  and  graceful  in  themselves, 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


Fig.  67.        Fig.  68.        Fig.  69.         Fig.  70.         Fig.  7L 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 
BALUSTERS. 


Fig.  72. 


.  73.  Hg.  .'4.  Fifr  75.  Fig.  76. 


86 


STAIR-BUILDING   MADE  EASY. 


a    « 


STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY. 


NEWELS. 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  85. 


.  K 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


NEWELS, 


Fig.  87. 


Fier.  88. 


STAIR-BUILDING   MADE    EASY.  89 

require  hand-rails  of  an  inconvenient  form  and  such  as  cannot 
be  made  to  look  well,  and  which  require  much  more  labor  and 
material  to  make,  than  the  rails  would  have  done  if  the  risers  and 
treads  had  been  properly  arranged.  To  provide  for  this,  I  would 
suggest  that  the  student  would  again  read  and  study  that  portion  of 
this  work  that  relates  to  dancing  or  balancing  the  steps  around  the 
well-hole.  A  little  experience  in  hand-railing  will  enable  the  stu- 
dent to  avoid  awkward  rails. 

The  student  should  cultivate  the  useful  habit  of  observing  the 
stairs  and  rails  around  him,  and  should  carefully  note  the  positions 
of  the  risers  of  those  which  appear  or  feel  awkward,  asking  himself 
why  they  are  inconvenient ;  should  he  ever  fail  to  find  a  satisfac- 
tory answer,  he  will  have  learned  the  positions  which  he  should 
avoid,  and  will  better  understand  the  method  of  arrangement  when 
he  comes  to  consider  it  practically. 

In  determining  the  size  of  a  well-hole,  its  length  must  be  well 
considered,  and  ample  provision  made  for  height  from  the  tread 
directly  under  the  trimmer,  and  in  no  case  should  this  height  be 
less  than  six  feet  six  inches. 

Frequently,  the  man  who  builds  the  stairs  will  be  called  upon  to 
decide  on  the  style  of  rail  and  design  of  balusters  and  newel.  To 
enable  him  to  meet  this  emergency  with  intelligence  and  satisfaction 
to  himself  and  the  proprietor,  I  present  for  his  consideration  a  number 
of  designs  for  both  balusters  and  newels :  Figs.  67,  68,  69,  70  and 
71,  show  a  number  of  plain  balusters  that  may  be  used  in  a  variety 
of  stairs ;  Figs.  67  and  68  are  adapted  for  the  more  common  sorts  of 
stairs;  while  Fig.  69,  which  has  an  octagon  shaft,  is  better  adapted 
for  a  stairs  of  some  pretensions.  Fig.  70  is  especially  adapted 
for  stairs  with  closed  strings  and  heavy  rails.  Fig.  71  may  be  us.-d 
in  almost  any  stairs.  Figs.  72,  73,  74,  75  and  76>  show  a  more 
ornate  class  of  balusters  than  those  mentioned.  Figs.  72,  73  and 

74  are  designed  for  stairs  with  closed  strings  and  heavy  rail.     Fig. 

75  is  intended  to  be  bored  in  the  rail  and  dovetailed  into  the  step. 
Fig.  76  is  intended  for    a  close  string  stair,  and  is  intended  to  be 
fastened  to  the  outside  of  the  string.     This  system  of  attaching  tin- 
baluster  to  the  outside  of  the  string  has  obtained  considerable  pop. 


9o 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


ulaiity  of  late,  and  is  really  a  very 
good  method  of  placing  the  balusters. 

Figs.  77,  78,  79,  80,  81,  82  and  83 
show  seven  popular  examples  of  new- 
els suitable  for  almost  any  kinds  of 
ordinary  stairs.  Fig.  79  has  an  octa- 
gon shaft  and  turned  members  and 
cap.  Figs.  80  and  81  have  octagon 
shafts  panelled,  with  carved  rosettes 
and  cap.  These  are  adapted  for  the 
better  kinds  of  stairs  in  city  and  town 
houses.  Figs.  82  and  83  show  more 
elaborate  posts;  these  may  be  used  in 
the  better  class  of  villas  and  cottages. 

The  five  examples  of  "built  newel 
posts"  shown  at  Figs.  84,  85,  86,  87 
and  88,  are  intended  for  first-class 
residences  or  hotels.  These  newels 
are  "  built  up  "  of  costly  woods,  or  are 
veneered,  and  as  a  rule  are  very 
costly.  The  good  workman  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  building  any  of  these, 
if  the  cost  is  only  allowed  him.  Most 
of  the  examples  of  these  balusters  and 
newels  may  be  obtained  from  regular 
dealers,  and  we  would  advise  the 
young  stair-builder  to  purchase  these 
newels  and  balusters  already  made  at 
the  factory  rather  than  attempt  to 
make  them  himself,  or  allow  even 
the  country  turner  to  make  them  for 
him.  Where  these  things  are  manu- 
factured there  are  means  and  appli- 
ances at  hand  that  enables  the  manu- 
facturers to  make  them  so  cheap  that 
the  everyday  workman  would  starve 


Fi~  89. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY.  91 

on  the  prices.  Then  again,  the  large  manufacturer  always  has  a 
large  amount  of  material  of  good  quality  to  draw  from,  and  can 
insure  good  work,  which  are  advantages  the  country  workman 
rarely  possesses. 

Fig.  89  shows  a  newel  post  adapted  for  gas-lights.  The  same 
design  of  post  may  be  used  for  a  kerosene  lamp.  The  lamp  may 
be  held  in  a  basket  made  of  brass,  iron  wire,  or  other  suitable  mate- 


Fig.  90,-Newel  an.l  Kail. 

rial-  or  it  may  stand  on  a  guarded  platform  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  by  other  device  which  the  cunning  workman   will 
trouble  in  perfecting. 


g-2  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

There  are  many  other  kinds  and  styles  of  balusters  and  newels 
than  the  ones  shown. 

Fig.  90  shows  a  portion  of  a  square  newel  with  a  carved  top,  in- 
cised panels  and  turned  cap.  The  balusters  in  this  case  are  square, 
because  that  form  is  in  keeping  with  the  style  of  newel  and  rail 
shown  in  this  example. 

A  section  of  the  rail  is  also  shown,  which,  it  will  be  noticed, 
is  rather  peculiar  in  shape;  this  style  of  newel  baluster,  and  rail 
is  well  adapted  for  small  cottages  in  rural  districts,  or  for  seaside 
cottages. 

By  referring  to  Figs.  35  and  36,  pages  46  and  47,  several  other 
designs  for  balusters  and  newels  will  be  seen.  At  Fig.  35  the  ar- 
rangement of  balusters  is  worth  examining  and  studying,  as  the 
system  pursued  may  be  varied  to  almost  any  extent. 

At  Fig.  36  the  newel  and  balusters  are  very  plain  but  very  effec- 
tive. The  taper  chamfers  on  the  newel  and  the  parallel  chamfers 
on  the  balusters  are  easily  wrought,  and  may  be  often  adopted 
with  gratifying  results. 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


93 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

N  this  chapter  I  propose  to  say  a  few  things  concerning 
stairs  that  may  be  useful  to  the  workman,  in  aiding  him 
to    work    out   some   little   things   that   have   not   been 
mentioned  in  the  main  body  of  the  book. 

To  begin  with,  I  show  and  explain,  on  pages  56  and  57,  a 
method  of  dancing  the  treads  around  the  well-holes  of  stairs  ob- 
tained by  computation,  but  which,  as  I  stated  at  the  time,  is  not  the 
best  way  to  obtain  the  width  of  the  inner  ends  of  the  winders  in 
order  to  secure  a  graceful  line  of  rail.  At  Fig.  91, 1  show  a  graphi- 


Flg.  91. 

cal  method  of  determining  the  widths  of  the  inner  ends  of  the  wind- 
ers so  that  a  rail  having  a  graceful  and  smooth  swrrp  may  be  ob- 
tained : 

Let  the  dotted  line  s  m  /,  Fig.   91,  represent   the  kneed   line 


g4  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

made  by  the  first  division  of  the  stairs  in  the  lower  part,  corre- 
sponding to  the  nosing  of  the  fliers,  and  the  upper  part,  ;;/  n,  to 
that  of  the  winders.  Bisect  the  line  of  the  winders  m  n  in  /,  and 
raise  a  perpendicular,  /  /'.  Then  set  off  m  s  equal  to  m  /,  and  make 
s  r  perpendicular  to  s  m.  The  intersection  of  these  two  perpen- 
diculars, s  r  and//,  gives  the  centre  of  the  arc  of  a  circle,  tangen- 
tial in  s  and  /  to  the  sides  of  the  angle  s  m  p.  In  like  manner  is 
found  the  arc  to  which/  «,  n  o,  are  tangents,  and  a  species  of  cyma 
is  formed  by  the  two  arcs,  which  is  a  graceful  double  curve  line 
without  knees.  This  line  is  met  by  the  horizontal  lines,  which  in- 
dicate the  surface  of  the  treads,  the  point  /  being  always  the  fixed 
point  of  the  centre  step,  the  twelfth  in  this  example.  Therefore,  the 
heights  of  the  risers  are  drawn  from  the  story  rod  to  meet  the 
curved  line  of  development,  s  p  o,  and  are  thence  transferred  to 
the  baluster  line  on  the  plan. 

By  adopting  this  method  a  handsome  rail  will  always  be  the  re- 
sult. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  stair-builder  will  be  called  upon 
to  reduce  or  enlarge  some  moulding  or  bracket  in  connection 
with  the  stairs  he  is  building,  and  to  provide  for  an  emergency  of 
this  kind,  I  herewith  show,  at  Fig.  92,  a  method  by  which  a  reduc- 
tion or  enlargement  may  be  accomplished  without  changing  the 
actual  shape  or  contour  of  the  the  moulding  or  bracket. 

The  manner  of  making  the  reduction  or  enlargement  will  be  seen 
at  once. 

If  A  is  the  original,  then  make  the  line  B  twice  the  length — if 
twice  the  size  is  desired — or  one  and  a  half  the  length,  if  only  one 
and  a  half  enlargement  is  wanted ;  run  the  lines  at  the  members 
as  shown  until  they  cut  the  line  A.  Then  on  the  line  B,  prick  off, 
with  the  compasses  the  points  shown  i^  or  2,  or  2^,  or  as  much 
larger  as  you  want  the  enlarged  moulding,  then  join  by  lines  the 
points  on  B  to  the  lines  on  A  ;  then  square  over  from  the  line  B,  touch- 
ing all  the  points,  and  give  those  lines  raised  on  B  the  same  length 
as  the  corresponding  lines  on  A,  and  this  work  is  complete. 

In  ordinary  stairs  the  rail  runs  into  a  cap  on  the  top  of  the 
newel  post,  and  this  cap  is  sometimes  made  as  much  as  8  or  10 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADK.    KASY.  95 

inches  in  diameter.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  face  or  moulding 
on  the  edge  of  the  cap  requires  to  be  a  little  different  in  outline. 
The  turner  who  makes  the  cap  will  of  course  know  nothing  of  this, 


Fig.  92. 

therefore  it  will  devolve  upon  the  man  who  builds  the  stairs  to  make 
patterns  for  the  cap. 

Fig.  93  shows  the  manner  by  which  the  correct  shape  of  the  cap 
may  be  obtained,  or  by  which  different  sizes  of  the  rail  may  be 
made  which  will  mitre  into  each  other  without  over  wood.  Tin- 
divisions  A,  B,  c,  D,  E,  F  and  G,  on  the  rail  correspond  to  the  figures 
i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  etc.,  on  the  cap.  These  latter  divisions  may  be 
made  greater  or  smaller,  according  to  the  size  of  cap  or  rail  desired. 
The  manner  of  finding  the  points  to  describe  the  semi-circles,  is  ob- 
vious and  requires  no  further  description. 

Many  times  the  workman  will  find  that  he  has  to  cut  a  thin  string  or 
skirting  board  over  a  rough  wall  string,  or  perhaps  to  fit  in  against 
a  plastered  wall  where  there  has  been  no  string  left  to  slum-  ;il><>\r 
the  trends  and  risers.  This  is  always  a  troublesome  piece  of  work, 
and  requires  great  care  and  exact  workmanship  to  make  anything 
like  a  good  job. 


96 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


Fig.  93. 


K  \>V. 


'Jl 


At  "Fig.  94,  I  show  an  instrument,  in  two  positions,  A  and  B,  that 
has  been  especially  designed  for  this  purpose.  In  the  cut  is  shown  a 
bevel  made  to  the  rake  of  the  skirting,  and  the  oilier  perpendu  ulai 
to  the  stair,  and  a  sliding  piece  to  be  applied  to  the  perpendicular 


Fiji.  9-L 

side  of  the  bevel   with  a  hooked  point  of  iron  or  steel,  to  stand 
forward   al  the   bottom  so  much    that  the  sliding  piece  may  dear 
the  nosfog  of  the  step.     I  shall  proceed  to  show  its  application. 
1  ay  the  Skirting  over  the  top  of  the  steps,  as  shown,  and  let  a  xeiy 
fine   notch  be  made  on  the  front  edg*    of  your  shdmg  piece 
the  hei-ht  of   a  step  or  rather  higher;   then  apply  the  pomt  ol    the 
sliding  piece  to  the  internal  corner  of  a  step  and    ,,,irk    JTOUI  *knt 
in*  in  the  notch,  the  bevel  being   supposed    to  be   brought  do*   I 
the  slHler;  again,  B»pposing  you  want  to  take  a  point  a,  the  Dosing 

,s.u  »    ,1,,,,-vnuMvtlH-  Level  applied  under,  apply  the  , .to 

voursluHn,  p-c<eto   ^nosing  at  A j   then  puck   you,    skn.mg  ,„ 


93 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


the  notch,  that  will  give  the  point  which  is  to  correspond,  and  by  tin's 
means  you  may  take  as  many  pricks  as  will  be  sufficient  until  the 
whole  is  completed.  Hence  it  is  evident,  that,  by  the  same  method, 
one  thing  may  be  correctly  marked  on  another  point,  and  by  slid- 
ing the  instrument  up  or  down  the  edge  of  the  skirting,  each  of  the 
treads  and  risers  may  be  lined  out.  To  form  the  nosings  complete, 
these  "pricks"  or  points  will  be  all  that  will  be  required,  as  these 
points  will  give  the  correct  position  to  place  the  template  or  pattern 
against.  If  the  nosings  are  all  exact,  let  a  mould  be  made  to  fit 
one  of  them,  and  your  nosings  on  the  skirtings  be  drawn  by  this 
mould,  which  will  likewise  be  exact. 

Fig.  95  shows  the  man- 
ner in    which   the   instru- 
ment   is     made.         Any 
joiner  should  be   able  to 
Fig.  95.  make    one,    as    they    are 

very    simple,    and     their 
construction  is  obvious. 

The  foregoing  illustration  is  taken  from  Newland's  "  Carpenters' 
and  Joiners'  Assistant,"  but  the  instrument  was  first  described  by 
Payne  in  1786,  and  then  by  Langly  in  1790,  and  afterwards  illus- 
trated and  described  by  Peter  Nicholson  in  1812,  so  that  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  tool  is  a  very  old  one. 

At  Fig.  96  I  show  a  scheme 
for  connecting  a  small  cylinder 
to  the  strings;  in  order  to  make 
a  good  anil  strong  joint.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  cylinder 
is  notched  out  on  the  back,  and 
the  two  blocks  shown  at  the 
back  of  the  offsets  are  wedges 
driven  in  to  secure  the  cylinder 
in  place,  and  to  drive  it  up 
tight  to  the  strings.  This  will 
be  better  shown  at  Fig.  97,  Fi  96 

where  the  dotted  lines  show  the 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 


99 


position  of  the  wedge.     The  scheme  is  so  very  clearly  shown  in 
the  engravings  that  further  description  is  unnecessary. 

With  respect  "to  bending  or  glueing  up  stuff  for  sweep  work, 
much  judgment  is  necessary;  and  as  the  methods  are  various,  I 
shall  mention  a  few,  that  the  workman  may  apply  them  as  occasion 
requires,  one  method  being  preferable  to  another,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  work  on  hand. 

The  first  and  most  simple  method  is,  that  of  sawing  kerfs  or 
notches  on  one  side  of  the  board,  thereby  giving  it  liberty  to  bend 

in  that  direction  ;  but  this 
method  though  very  ready 
and  useful  for  many  pur- 
poses, is  still  very  weak 
where  any  strain  may  be 
on  the  piece.  Still,  in 
this  instance,  we  may  in 
some  measure  make  a 
tolerably  strong  sweep,  if 
after  sawing  the  kerfs, 
and  being  particular  to 
make  them  regular  and 
even,  and  sawing  them  at 
equal  depths,  we  rub 
some  strong  glue  into  each  kerf,  then  bend  it  to  the  required  sweep, 
and  glue  a  piece  of  strong  canvas  over  the  kerfs  themselves,  leav- 
ing the  glue  to  harden  in  the  position  which  we  have  I 

stuff  to. 

The  next  method  is,  that  of  glueing  up  our  stuff  in  th.n 
nesses,  in  a  caul  or  mould  made  with  two  pieces  of  th.ck  wood  c 
into  the  required  sweep;  and  this  method,  if  done  w.th  car 
is,  making  the  several  pieces  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  a, 
free  from  knots,  is  perhaps  the  best  that  can  be  dei  »ed 
and  accuracy.     It  is  also  a  practice  sometnnes  to  ,lue  up  a  swer, 


Fig.  97. 


three  thicknesses,  making  the  middle  piece  the  , 
or   the  gniin   to  the  outside  and   inside  pieces   which   run    e 
ways      This    method,  though    frequently  used   for    expedition,  n 


I0o  STAIR-BUILDING    MADE    EASY. 

much  inferior  to  the  above,  as  it  does  not  allow  the  different  pieces 
to  shrink  together,  and  consequently  the  joint  between  them  is  apt 
to  give  way.  Again,  in  many  instances,  a  solid  piece,  if  not  too 
thick,  may  be  bent  into  the  form  required ;  if  we  soak  well  the  out- 
side of  the  curve  with  hot  water,  and  hold  the  inside  to  the  fire, 
when  having  formed  the  curve  to  your  mind,  you  retain  it  in  that 
position  till  cold  and  dry,  it  will  retain  the  curvature  given  to  it. 

The  last  method  I  shall  here  mention  is  that  of  forming  a  curve 
by  means  of  cutting  out  solid  pieces  to  the  required  sweep,  and 
glueing  them  upon  one  another  till  you  have  attained  the  thickness 
required,  taking  care  the  joints  are  alternately  in  the  centre  of  each 
piece  below  it,  something  in  the  manner  of  a  course  of  bricks  above 
each  other;  in  this  case  it  will  be  necessary,  if  the  work  is  not  to 
be  painted,  to  veneer  the  whole  with  a  thin  piece  after  the  first  has 
been  thoroughly  dry  and  and  planed  level,  and  also  made  some- 
what rough  with  either  a  rasp  or  toothing  plane. 

By  scribing  is  meant,  generally,  the  method  of  making  one  piece 
of  stuff  fit  against  another  when  the  joint  is  irregular;  thus  ihe 
plinth  of  a  room  is  made  to  meet  or  correspond  with  the  uneven- 
ness  of  the  floor;  in  this  manner,  by  opening  your  compasses  to  the 
•greatest  distance  the  plinth  is  from  the  floor  where  some  parts  touch 
it,  and  letting  one  leg  run  along  upon  the  floor  or  uneven  surface,  the 
other  leg  will  leave  a  mark  on  the  plinth,  which,  if  we  cut  away  the 
stuff  to  that  mark,  it  will  then  make  a  good  joint  with  the  floor; 
but  the  great  use  of  scribing  to  the  joiner  is,  that  of  joining  mould- 
ing of  panels  or  cornices  that  shall,  when  placed  together,  seem  a 
regular  mitre  joint;  and  it  has  this  advantage  over  the  common 
method  of  mitering— that  if  the  stuff  should  shrink,  it  will  scarcely 
alter  the  appearance  of  it,  whilst  that  of  the  mitre,  under  the  same 
circumstances,  causes  a  gap  to  show  itself,  and  the  joint  to  appear 
bad.  The  method  is  this:  to  cut  one  piece  of  the  moulding  to  the 
required  mitre,  and  then,  instead  of  cutting  the  other  to  correspond 
to  it,  cut  away  the  parts  of  the  first  piece,  till  we  come  to  the  edge 
of  the  moulding,  which  will  then  fit  as  the  other  moulding,  and  appear 
as  a  regular  mitre. 

It  may  sometimes  happen  that  the  stair-builder  may  wish  to 


STAIR-BUILDING    MADK    KASY.  IO1 

order  the  rail  from  some  factory;  when  such  is  the  case,  always  send 
the  following  dimensions:  Height  of  riser  from  top  of  one  step  to  top 
of  another;  the  exact  number  of  risers  from  floor  to  floor;  the  width 
of  step,  without  projecting  nosing;  the  length  of  rail  on  k-vrls. 
and  where  measured  from..  If  the  stairs  have  winding  steps,  m:iki- 
a  diagram  and  figure  exact  width  of  each  winder  on  the  line  of 
front  string-piece  and  cylinder;  also,  width  of  cylinder,  and  whether 
the  stairs  turn  to  the  right  or  left  on  the  landings.  Follow  these 
directions  closely,  and  there  will  be  no  trouble  about  getting  the 
rail  to  fit  properly  when  it  is  set  up. 


GLOSSARY. 


Apron-piece. — In  carpentry,  a  horizontal  piece  of  timber  iu  a  wooden 
doable-flighted  stair  supporting  the  carriage  pieces  and  joistings  in  the 
half  spaces  of  landings. 

Arch.— A  construction  of  bricks,  wood,  or  stone,  disposed  in  the  form 
of  a  curve.  There  are  several  parts,  as  the  keystone,  which  enters  the 
top  of  the  arch  like  a  wedge,  binding  the  work.  Springers,  the  bottom 
stones  which  rest  on  the  supports;  and  span,  which  is  the  distance  across 
the  arch. 

Architecture. —The  art  or  science  of  building;  especially  the  art  of 
constructing  houses,  bridges,  and  other  buildings,  for  the  purposes  of 
civil  life. 

Architrave.— 1.  The  lower  division  of  an  entablature,  or  that  part 
which  rests  immediately  on  the  column.  2.  Also,  the  ornamental  mould- 
ing around  the  exterior  of  an  arch.  3.  A  moulding  above  a  door  or 
window,  and  the  like.  4.  This  term  is  also  applied  to  door  and  window 


Arris. — The  edges  formed  by  two  surfaces  meeting  together,  whether 
plain  or  curved.  In  stucco  work,  when  two  surfaces  meet,  as  the  corner 
of  a  beam  or  cornice,  this  term  applies. 

Arris  Fillet.  —A  triangular  piece  of  wood  laid  against  a  chimney  or 
wall,  to  raise  shingles  or  slates,  to  throw  off  the  rain. 

Astragal.— A  small  semicircular  moulding,  sometimes  plain  and  some- 
times ornamented. 

Astragal.—!.  A  little  round  moulding,  which  surrounds  the  top  or 
bottom  of  a  column.  2.  Also,  often  used  in  the  capital  of  the  Ionic 
column.  And  it  is  also  used  for  various  purposes  in  common  work. 

Axis.— In  architecture,  an  imaginary  line  through  the  centre  of  a  column, 
etc.,  or  its  geometrical  representation:  where  different  members  are  placed 
over  each  other,  so  that  the  same  vertical  line,  on  the  elevation,  divides 
them  equally,  they  are  said  to  be  on  the  same  axis,  although  they  may  be 
on  differeut'plftues:  tuus>  triglyphsand  modillious  are  so  arranged,  that 
one  coincides  with  the  axis  or  line  of  axis  of  each  column:  in  like  man- 
ner, the  windows  or  other  openings  in  the  several  stories  of  a  fu9aila 
must  all  be  in  the  same  respective  axis,  whether  they  are  all  of  the  same 
breadth  or  not.  In  geometry,  the  straight  line  in  a  plane  figure,  abont 
which  it  revolves  to  produce  or  generate  a  solid.  In  mechanics,  the  axis 
of  a  balance  is  the  line  upon  which  it  moves  or  turns.  In  turning,  an  im 
aginary  line  passing  longitudinally  through  the  middle  of  the  body  to 
be  turned,  from  one  point  to  the  other  of  the  two  cones,  by  which  the 


104 


GLOSSARY. 


work  is  suspended,  or  between  the  back  centre  and  the  centre  of  the 
collar  of  the  puppet  which  supports  the  end  of  the  mandril  at  the 
chuck. 

Axis  of  a  Circle  or  sphere.— Any  line  drawn  through  the  centre  and  ter- 
minated at  the  circumference  on  both  sides.  Of  a  cone,  the  line  from  the 
vertex  to  the  centre  of  the  base.  Of  a  cylinder,  the  line  from  the  centre 
of  the  one  end  to  that  of  the  other.  In  peritrochlo,  a  wheel  and  axle,  one 
of  the  five  mechanical  powers,  or  simple  machines;  contrived  chiefly  for 
the  raising  of  weights  to  a  considerable  height,  as  water  from  a  well,  etc. 
Of  rotation,  of  any  solid,  the  line  about  which  the  body  really  revolves 
when  it  is  put  in  motion. 

In  every  possible  change  of  position  of  a  rigid  body  relatively  to  a  fixed 
centre,  there  is  a  line  traversing  that  centre  whose  direction  is  not 
changed ;  that  is  the  axis  of  rotation. 

Back. The  side  opposite  to  the  face  or  breast  of  any  piece  of  architec- 
ture. In  a  recess  on  a  quadrangular  plane,  the  face  is  that  surface  which 
has  the  two  adjacent  planes,  called  the  sides,  elbows,  or  gables.  When 
a  piece  of  timber  is  fixed  in  a  horizontal  or  in  an  inclined  position,  the 
upper  side  is  called  the  back,  and  the  lower  the  breast.  Thus  the  upper 
side  of  the  hand-rail  of  a  staircase  is  properly  called  the  back.  The 
same  is  to  be  understood  with  regard  to  the  curved  ribs  of  a  ceiling  and 
the  rafters  of  a  roof,  whose  story  edges  are  always  called  the  back. 

Back. — When  a  piece  of  timber  is  placed  in  position,  the  upper  side  is 
called  the  back  and  the  lower  the  breast. 

Baluster. — A  small  column  or  pillar  used  in  a  balustrade.  Balusters 
are  generally  placed  round  the  gallery  in  the  stern  and  the  quarter  gal- 
lery of  large  ships.  (See  pages  14,  46,  47,  84,  85;  and  Figs.  98-107). 

Balustrade. — A  series  or  row  of  balusters,  joined  by  a  rail,  serving  for 
a  rest  to  the  arms,  or  as  a  fence  or  enclosure  to  balconies,  altars,  stair- 
cases, etc.  Balustrades,  when  intended  for  use,  or  against  windows,  on 
flights  of  steps,  terraces,  and  the  like,  should  not  be  more  than  three  feet 
six  inches,  nor  less  than  three  feet  in  height.  When  used  for  ornament, 
as  on  the  summit  of  a  building,  their  height  may  be  from  two-thirds  to 
four-fifths  of  the  entablature  whereon  they  are  employed;  and  this  pro- 
portion is  to  be  taken  exclusive  of  their  zoccolo  or  plinth,  so  that  from  the 
proper  point  of  sight  the  whole  balustrade  may  be  exposed  to  view. 
There  are  various  species  of  balusters;  if  single  bellied,  the  best  way  is 
to  divide  the  total  height  of  the  space  allotted  for  the  balustrade  into 
thirteen  equal  parts,  the  height  of  the  baluster  to  be  eight,  of  the  base- 
three,  and  of  the  cornice  two  of  those  parts;  or  divide  the  total  height 
into  fourteen  parts,  making  the  baluster  eight,  the  base  four,  and  the 
cornice  two.  If  double-bellied,  the  height  should  be  divided  into  four- 
teen parts,  two  of  which  are  to  be  given  to  the  cornice,  three  to  the  base, 
and  the  remainder  to  the  baluster. 

The  distance  between  two  balusters  should  not  be  more  than  half  the 
diameter  of  the  baluster  in  its  thickest  part,  nor  less  than  one-third 
of  it;  but  on  inclined  planes  the  intervals  should  not  be  quite  so 
wide. 

Band. — A  flat  or  square  member  or  moulding,  smaller  than  the  facia. 
Basement.— The  lower  part  of  a  building. 

Base  Mouldings. — The  mouldings  immediately  above  the  plinth  of  a 
wull,  pillar  or  pedestal. 


S  A  R  Y. 

ISA  1. 1  STKKS. 


I05 


I'i-S.  '.IS. 


99. 


lirj. 


103.      104.       105.        lOfi.      107. 


Hearing1  of  a  JH'CCCI  of  limber.  -That  part  of  a  piece  of  timber  which 
is  unsupported,  or  is  between  two  or  more  props. 

Hearing1. — The  lengtli  between  bearers  or  walls;  thus,  if  a  bearer  rests 
on  walls  twenty  feet  apart,  the  bearing  is  said  to  be  twenty  feet. 

Hearing  Wall,  or  partition.— A  wall  which  is  built  npon  the  soli.l, 
and  made  to  support  another  wall  or  partition,  either  in  the  name  or  a 
transverse  position.  When  the  supported  wall  is  built  in  the  same  di- 
rection as  the  wall  it  supports,  it  is  said  to  have  a  solid  bearing,  but 
when  built  in  a  transverse  direction,  or  uot  supported  through-nil  n- 
length,  a  false  bearing. 

Beak.— A  small  fillet  in  the  under  edge  of  a  projecting  corni.v.  m 
tended  to  prevent  the  rain  from  passing  between  the  cornice  and  n 

Belfry.—  That  part  of  a  steeple  in  which  the  bells  are  hung. 

1M\.  —  Of  the  Corinthian  and  Composite  Oniers.  It  is  used  to  denol,-  the 
body  of  the  e.ipilul  by  reason  of  its  shape  to  an  Inverted  bell. 

Boll-roof.     -Somewhat  similar  in  its  curves  to  a  bell. 

licit.      A  course,  of  stones  projecting  from  a   brick  or  Rtone    wall,  u'l-n- 
erally  placed  in  a  line  with    tho  sills  of   the  first  tf'-or  window,  it  is  eilli.T 
moulded  fluted,  plane  or  enriched  will,  patras  at  r.-gular  inl.-rv.iU     B 
times  eall.-d  stone   strni". 


106  GLOSSARY. 

Belvedere  or  Look  out. — A  turret  or  lantern  raised  above  the  roof  of 
an  observatory  for  the  purpose  of  enjoying  a  fine  prospect. 

Benda.— See  Fascia. 

|{<> v<>l.  — AQ  instrument  used  by  artificers,  one  leg  whereof  is  frequently 
curved  according  to  the  sweep  of  au  arch  or  vault.  It  is  movable  upon 
a  pivot  or  centre  so  as  to  render  it  capable  of  being  set  at  any  angle. 
The  make  and  use  of  it  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  common 
square  and  mitre,  except  that  those  are  fixed,  the  first  at  an  augle  of  90° 
and  the  second  at  an  angle  of  45°;  whereas  the  bevel  being  movable,  it 
may  in  some  way  supply  in  some  measure  the  office  of  both;  and  yet 
supply  the  deficiency  of  both,  which  is,  indeed,  its  principal  use,  inasmuch 
as  it  serves  to  set  off  or  transfer  angles  either  greater  or  less  than 
95  or  45  degrees. 

Any  angle  that  is  not  square  is  called  a  bevel  angle,  whether  it  be  more 
obtuse  or  more  acute  than  a  right  angle,  but  if  it  be  one-half  as  much  as 
a  right  angle,  viz.,  45°,  the  workmen  call  it  &  mitre.  They  have  also  a  term 
half  mitre,  which  is  an  angle  one-quarter  of  a  quadrant  or  square,  that  is, 
an  angle  of  22£  degrees. 

Bevel  angle.— A  term  used  by  workmen  to  denote  any  angle  besides 
those  of  90  or  45  degrees. 

Billet  moulding.-See  Moulding. 

Bond-timbers.— Timbers  placed  in  a  horizontal  direction  in  the  walls  of 
a  building  in  tiers,  and  in  which  the  battens,  laths,  etc.,  are  secured.  In 
rubble  work,  walls  are  better  plugged  for  this  purpose. 

Bonds. — This  general  term  includes  the  whole  of  the  timbers  that  are 
disposed  in  a  wall  as  bond-timbers,  wall  plates,  lintels  and  templates. 

Bridging-joists. — Pieces  of  timber,  or  joists  in  naked  flooring,  extend- 
ing in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  girder  and  supported  by  bearers 
called  binding  joists  which  lie  in  a  transverse  direction. 

Brackets  in  Gothic  architecture  are  usually  of  very  elegant  design, 
and  are  mostly  sculptured  to  represent  angels,  heads,  foliage,  and  many 
other  beautiful  devices.  They  are  used  to  support  statues  under  niches, 
pillars  which  have  their  bases  at  a  height  above  the  ground,  and  for 
various  other  purposes. 

Brackets  for  stairs  are  sometimes  used  under  the  ends  of  wooden 
steps,  next  to  the  well-hole,  by  way  of  ornaments,  for  they  have  only  the 
appearance  of  support.— Nicholson.  (See  Figs.  26,  108,  109,  110,  111,  112, 
113,  114  and  115). 


Fig.  108.  Fig.  109.  Fig.  no. 


GLOSSARY.  107 


r 


Fig.  111.  Fig.  112.  Fig.  113.  Fig.  114. 

Bracket-stairs.  —  The  same  method  must  be  observed,  with  regard  to 
taking  the  dimensions  and  laying  down  the  plan  and  section,  as  in  dog- 
liug-stairs.  In  all  stairs  whatever,  after  having  ascertained  the  number 
of  steps,  take  a  rod  the  height  of  the  story,  from  the  surface  of  the 
lower  floor  to  the  surface  of  the  upper  floor;  divide  the  rod  into  as  many 
equal  parts  as  there  are  to  be  risers;  then  if  you  have  a  level  surface  to 
work  upon  below  the  stairs,  try  each  one  of  the  risers  as  you  go  on:  this 
will  prevent  any  defect.  (See  Figs.  116  and  117). 

Canting.  —  The  cutting  away  a  part  of  an  angular  body  at  one  of  its 
angles,  that  the  section  may  form  a  parallelogram,  whose  edges  are  par- 
allel from  the  intersection  of  the  adjoining  planes. 

Carriage.  —  The  timber  work  which  supports  the  steps  of  a  wooden 
stair.  (See  pages  43,  45,  54,  64,  65,  66,  67,  68,  69  and  71). 

Cased.  —  A  term  which  signifies  that  the  outside  of  a  building  is  faced 
or  covered  with  materials  of  a  better  quality. 

Cavetto.  —  A  concave  ornamental  moulding,  opposed  in  effect  to  the 
ovolo—  the  quadrant  of  a  circle. 

Chamfer.  —  To  channel  or  make  indentures  in  stones,  pillars,  or  other 
ornamented  parts  of  a  building. 

Chamfer.—  The  arris  of  anything  originally  right  angled,  cut  aslope, 
or  bevel,  so  that  the  plane  it  then  forms  is  inclined  less  than  a  ri(j;ht 
angle  to  the  other  planes  with  which  it  intersects.  If  it  is  not  carried 
the  whole  extent  of  the  piece,  it  is  returned,  and  then  it  is  said  to  be  stop 
chamfered.  (See  page  47). 

Chase  Mortise.—  The  mode  of  inserting  or  mortising  inclined  trans- 
verse joists  into  parallel  timbers  in  ceilings. 

Close  String.—  In  dog-leg  stairs,  a  stair-case  without  an  open  newel. 
(See  pages  46  and  47). 

Cockle  Stairs.  -A  winding  staircase. 

Common.  -A  line,  angle  surface,  etc.,  which  belongs  equally  to  several 
objects.     Common  centering  is  a  centering  without  trusses,  having  a 
beam  at  bottom.    Common  joists  are  the  beams  in  naked   flooring   t 
which  the  joists  are  fixed.     Common  rafters  m  a  roof  are  thos« 
the  laths  are  attached. 

Cross-banded.—  A  term  applied  to  a  veneer  on  a  hand-roil,  the  grain  of 
which  crosses  that  of  the  rail. 

Cross-beam.  -A  large  beam  going  from  wall  to  wall,  or  a  girder  that 
holds  the  side  of  the  house  together. 


Curtail  step.—  The  first  step  by  which  a  stair  is  ascended  finiHlmiK  :il 
the   end  in    "form   of  a   scroll  following   the  plan   of  the  band-nuT.- 


Nicholson. 


io8 


GLOSSARY. 


Fig.  116. 


Fig.  117. 


GLOSSARY.  109 

.— A  moulding  with  an  undulating  or  waved  profile,  partly  con- 
vex and  partly  concave,  called  by  workmen  an  ogee.  When  the  hollow 
part  is  uppermost,  it  is  called  a  cy  ma-recta;  when  the  con  vex  partis  above 
a  cyma-reversa;  when  it  is  the  upper  moulding  of  a  cornice  it  is  ralU-d 
cymatinm. 

Cylinder.  —A  cylinder  is  a  solid,  described  by  geometricians  as  gener- 
ated by  the  rotation  of  a  rectangle  about  one  of  its  sides,  supposed  to  be 
at  rest;  this  quiescent  side  is  called  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  therefore  the 
base  and  top  of  the  cylinder  are  equal  or  similar  circles. 

A  prism  is  a  solid,  whose  base  and  top  are  similar  right  line  figures, 
with  sides  formed  in  planes,  and  rising  perpendicularly  from  the  base  to 
the  top. 

The  cylinder,  so  called  by  joiners,  is  a  solid  figure,  compounded  of  the 
two  last-mentioned  figures;  its  base  is  composed  of  a  semicircle  joined  to 
a  rif/ht-angled parallelogram.  This  last  compound  figure  is  intended  when- 
ever the  word  cylinder  occurs  in  the  preceding  work,  unless  the  word 
geometrical  be  prefixed.  (See  pages  14,  63  and  98). 

Definitions  ill  Geometry.— 1.  A  point  is  that  which  hath  no  parts,  or 
which  hath  no  magnitude. 

2.  A  line  is  length  without  breadth. 

3.  A  superficies  has  length  and  breadth. 

4.  A  solid  is  a  figure  of  three  dimensions,  having  length,  breadth,  ard 
thickness.     Hence  surfaces  are  extremities  of  solids,  and  lines  the  ex- 
tremities of  surfaces,  and  points  the  extremities  of  lines. 

If  two  lines  will  always  coincide  however  applied,  when  any  two  points 
in  the  one  coincide  with  the  two  points  in  the  other,  the  two  lines  are 
called  straight  lines,  or  otherwise  right  lines. 

A  curve  continually  changes  its  direction  between  its  extreme  points, 
or  has  no  part  straight. 

Parallel  lines  are  always  at  the  same  distance,  and  will  never  im-ct, 
though  ever  so  far  produced.  Oblique  right  lines  change  their  distance, 
and  would  meet,  if  produced. 

One  line  is  perpendicular  to  another  when  it  inclines  no  more  to  one 
side  than  another. 

A  straight  line  is  a  tangent  to  a  circle  when  it  touches  the  circle  with- 
out cutting,  when  both  are  produced. 

An  angle  is  the  inclination  of  two  lines  towards  one  another  in  the  sunn- 
plane,  meeting  in  a  point. 

Angles  are  either  right,  acute,  or  obtuse. 

A  right  angle  is  that  which  is  made  by  one  line  perpendicular  to  an- 
other, or  when  the  angles  on  each  side  are  equal. 

An  acute  angle  is  less  than  a  right  angle. 

An  obtuse  angle  is  greater  than  a  right  angle. 

A  plane  is  a  surface  with  which  a  straight  line  will  everywlirn-  i-t.in- 
cide;  and  is  otherwise  called  ft  straight  surface. 

Plane  figures,  bounded  by  right  lines,  have  names  according  to  the 
number  of  their  sides,  or  of  their  angles,  for  they  have  as  many  sides  as 
angles:  the  least  number  is  three. 

An  equilateral  triangle  is  that  whose  three  sides  are  equal. 

An  isosceles  triangle  has  only  two  sides  equal. 

A  scalene  triangle  has  all  sides  unequal. 

A  right-angled  triangle  has  only  one  right  ftOgle. 

Other  triangles  are  oblique-angled,  and  are  either  obtMW  OT  MOta, 

An  acute-angled  triangle  has  all  its  angles  aruU-. 


HO  GLOSSARY. 

An  obtuse-angled  triangle  has  one  obtuse  angle. 

A  figure  of  four  sides,  or  angles,  is  called  a  quadrilateral  or  quad- 
rangle. 

A  parallelogram  is  a  quadrilr.teral,  which  has  both  pairs  of  its  opposite 
sides  parallel,  and  takes  the  following  particular  names: 

A  rectangle  is  a  parallelogram,  having  all  its  angles  right  ones. 

A  square  is  an  equilateral  rectangle,  having  all  its  sides  equal,  and  nil 
its  angles  right  angles. 

A  rhombus   s  an  equilateral  parallelogram  whose  angles  are  oblique. 

A  rhomboid  is  an  oblique-angled  parallelogram,  and  its  opposite  sides 
only  are  equal. 

A  trapezium  is  a  quadrilateral,  which  has  neither  pair  of  its  sides 
parallel. 

A  trapezoid  has  only  one  of  its  sides  parallel. 

Plane  figures  having  more  than  four  sides,  are  in  general  called  poly- 
gons, and  receive  other  particular  names  according  to  the  number  of  their 
sides  or  angles. 

A  pentagon  is  a  polygon  of  five  sides,  a  hexagon  of  six  sides,  a  hep- 
tagon seven,  an  octagon  eight,  an  enueagou  nine,  a  decagon  ten,  an  uude- 
cagon  eleven,  and  a  dodecagon  twelve  sides. 

A  regular  polygon  has  all  its  sides  and  its  angles  equal;  and  if  they  are 
not  equal,  the  polygon  is  irregular. 

An  equilateral  triangle  is  also  a  regular  figure  of  three  sides,  and  a  square 
is  one  of  four;  the  former  being  called  a  trigon,  and  the  latter  a  tetragon. 

A  circle  is  a  plane  figure,  bounded  by  a  curve  line,  called  the  circum- 
ference, which  is  everywhere  equidistant,  from  a  certain  point  within, 
called  its  centre. 

TLe  radius  of  a  circle  is  a  right  line  drawn  from  the  centre  to  the  cir- 
cumference. 

A  diameter  of  a  circle  is  a  right  line  drawn  through  the  centre,  ter- 
minating on  both  sides  of  the  circumference. 

An  arc  of  a  circle  is  any  part  of  the  circumference. 

A  chord  is  a  right  line  joining  the  extremities  of  an  arc. 

A  segment  is  any  part  of  a  circle  bounded  by  an  arc  and  its  chord. 

A  semicircle  is  half  a  circle,  or  a  segment  cut  off  by  the  diameter. 

A  sector  is  any  part  of  a  circle  bounded  by  an  arc,  and  two  radii  drawn 
to  its  extremities. 

A  quadrant,  or  quarter  of  a  circle,  is  a  sector  having  a  quarter  part 
ot  the  circumference  for  its  arc,  and  the  two  radii  perpendicular  to  each 
other. 

The  height  or  altitude  of  any  figure  is  a  perpendicular  let  fall  from  an 
angle  or  its  vertex  to  the  opposite  side,  called  the  base. 

The  measure  of  any  right-lined  angle  is  an  arc  of  any  circle  contained 
between  the  two  lines  which  form  the  angle,  the  angular  point  being  the 

A  solid  is  said  to  be  cut  by  a  plane  when  it  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
ol  which  the  common  surface  of  separation  is  a  plane,  and  this  plane  is 
called  a  section. 

Definitions  of  solids.—  A  prism  is  a  solid,  the  ends  of  which  are  similar 
and  equal  parallel  planes  and  the  sides  parallelograms. 

PriSm  ^  PerPendicalar  to  the  sides,  the  prism  is 
rism  are  °bli(lue  to  the  sides-  the  P^sm  is  called  an 


GLOSSARY.  Ill 

If  the  ends  and  sides  are  equal  squares,  the  prism  is  called  a  cube. 

If  the  base  or  ends  are  parallelograms,  the  solid  is  called  a  parallele- 
piped. 

If  the  bases  and  sides  are  rectangles,  the  prism  is  called  a  rectangular 
prism. 

If  the  ends  are  circles,  the  prism  is  called  a  cylinder. 

If  the  ends  or  bases  are  ellipses,  the  prism  is  called  a  cylindroid. 

A  solid,  standing  upon  any  plane  figure  for  its  base,  the  sides  of  which 
are  plane  triangles,  meeting  in  one  point,  is  called  a  pyramid. 

The  solid  is  denominated  from  its  base,  as  a  triangular  pyramid  is  one 
upon  a  triangular  base,  a  square  pyramid  one  upon  a  square  base,  etc. 

If  the  base  is  a  circle  or  an  ellipsis,  then  the  pyramid  is  called  a  cone. 

If  a  solid  be  terminated  by  two  dissimilar  parallel  planes  as  ends,  and 
the  remaining  surfaces  joining  the  ends  be  also  planes,  the  solid  is  called 
a  prismoid. 

If  a  part  of  a  pyramid  next  to  the  vertex  be  cut  off  by  a  plane  parallel 
to  the  base,  the  portion  of  the  pyramid  contained  between  the  cutting 
plane  and  the  base  is  called  the  frustum  of  a  pyramid. 

A  solid,  the  base  of  which  is  a  rectangle,  the  four  sides  joining  the 
base  plane  surfaces,  and  two  opposite  ones  meeting  in  a  line  parallel  to 
the  base,  is  called  a  cuneus  or  wedge. 

A  solid  terminated  by  a  surface  which  is  everywhere  equally  distant 
from  a  certain  point  within  it  is  called  a  sphere  or  globe. 

If  a  sphere  be  cut  by  any  two  planes,  the  portion  contained  between 
the  planes  is  called  a  zone,  and  each  of  the  parts  contained  by  a  plane 
and  the  curved  surface  is  called  a  segment. 

If  a  semi-ellipsis,  having  an  axis  for  its  diameter,  be  revolved  round 
this  axis  until  it  come  to  tha  place  whence  the  motion  began,  the  solid 
formed  by  the  circumvolution  is  called  a  spheroid. 

If  the  spheroid  be  generated  round  the  greater  axis,  the  solid  is  called 
a  prolate  spheroid. 

If  the  solid  be  generated  round  the  lesser  axis,  the  solid  is  called  an 
oblate  spheroid. 

A  solid  of  any  of  the  above  structures,  hollow  within,  so  as  to  contain 
a  solid  of  the  same  structure,  is  called  a  hollow  solid. 

These  terms  are  frequently  used  in  stair-building. 

Dog-legged  stairs.— Such  as  are  solid  between  the  upper  flights, 
or  those  that  have  no  well-hole;  and  the  rail  and  balusters  of  both  the 
progressive  and  retrogressive  flight,  fall  in  the  same  vertical  plane.  The 
steps  are  fixed  to  strings,  newels,  and  carriages;  and  the  ends  of  the 
steps  of  the  inferior  kind  terminate  only  on  the  side  of  the  string.— 
Nicholson.  (See  pages  43  and  45). 

Dove-tailing.  -The  method  of  fastening  one  piece  of  wood  to  another, 
by  projecting  pins,  cut  in  the  form  of  dove-tails  in  one  pioc-e,  and  let 
into  hollows  of  the  same  form  in  the  other.  Dove-tailing  is  either  exposed 
or  concealed;  concealed  dove-tailing  is  of  two  kinds,  lapped  and  mitered. 

Draught,  or  Drawing.-Architectural  composition  or  design,  is  nn- 
derstoo.l  to  bo  a  necessary  mode  of  conveying  instructions  to  the  practical 
builder  and  the  workmen,  by  exhibiting  a  comprehensive  view  of  a  pro- 
jected building;  drawings  for  this  purpose  must  be  executed  with  cle»uv 
ness  and  precision,  conformable  to  a  regular  scale  of  proportions.  1 ! IAIJH, 
elevations,  and  sections  are  to  represent  the  internal  features  of  the 
apartments,  halls,  passages,  and  various  arrangements 


112  GLOSSARY. 

» 

convenience,  and  the  external  facades,  porticos,  domes,  and  other  out- 
ward appendages.  Drawings  of  the  sm;iller  parts  of  an  edifice  will  be 
required  numerous  in  proportion  to  their  extent  and  variety  of  form. 
Where  the  trades  of  a  building  differ  considerably,  elevations  of  each 
of  them  will  be  required,  and  more  than  one  general  view  of  the  pro- 
jected building  will  be  necessary  to  give  satisfaction  to  the  proprietor. 

Ellipse. — That  curve  called  by  workmen  an  oval. 

Face  Mould. — The  pattern  for  marking  the  plunk  or  board  out  of  which 
ornamental  hand-railings  for  stairs  and  other  works  are  cut. 

Face  Mould. — In  the  preparation  of  the  hand-rail  of  a  stair,  a  mould  for 
drawing  the  proper  figure  on  both  sides  of  the  plank;  so  that  when  cut  by 
a  saw  held  at  a  certain  inclination,  the  two  surfaces  of  the  rail  piece  will 
be  everywhere  perpendicular  to  the  plan,  when  laid  in  their  intended 
posi  tioii. — Nicholson. 

Fascia. — Aflat  broad  member  in  the  entablature  of  columns  or  other 
parts  of  buildings  but  of  small  projection.  The  architraves  in  some  of 
the  orders,  are  composed  of  three  bands  or  fascia;  the  Tuscan  and  the 
Doric  ought  to  have  only  one.  Ornamental  projections  from  the  walls  of 
brick  buildings  over  any  of  the  windows,  except  the  uppermost  are  called 
fascia. 

Feather-edged  Boards,  are  narrow  boards  made  thin  at  one  edge,  like 
shingles  or  some  kinds  of  olapboarding. 

Fox-tail  wedging,  is  a  peculiar  mode  of  mortising,  in  which  the  end 
of  the  tenon  is  notched  beyond  the  mortise  and  is  split,  and  a  wedge 
inserted  which  being  forcibly  driven  in,  enlarges  the  tenon  and  renders 
the  joint  firm  and  immovable. 

Flight  of  stairs. — In  a  staircase  is  the  series  of  steps  from  one  landing 
place  to  another.  Thus  the  same  staircase  between  one  floor  and  another 
)nay  consist  f  more  than  one  flight  of  steps;  the  flight  being  reckoned 
from  one  landing  to  another. 

Floor. — The  pavement  or  boarded  lower  horizontal  surface  of  an  apart- 
ment. It  is  constructed  of  earth,  brick,  Ktoue,  wood,  or  other  materials. 
Carpenters  include  in  the  term  the  frame  timber  work  on  which  the 
boarding  is  laid,  as  well  as  the  boards  themselves.  In  carpentry,  it  de- 
notes the  timbers  which  support  the  boarding,  called  also  naked  flouring 
and  carcass  flooring. 

The  term  floor  is,  moreover,  applied  to  the  stories  of  a  building,  as 
basement  floor,  ground  floor,  etc.  When  there  is  no  sunk  story,  the  ground 
story  becomes  the  basement  floor,  and  the  next  floor  the  principal  floor, 
containing  the  principal  rooms;  in  many  country  houses  they  are  on  the 
ground  floor,  but  in  those  of  the  town  mostly  on  the  one  pair  floor.  The 
expressions  one  pair,  two  pair,  etc.,  imply  a  story  above  the  first  flight  of 
stairs  from  the  ground,  and  so  on. 

Frame.— The  name  given  to  the  woodwork  of  windows,  doors,  etc.; 
and  in  carpentry,  to  the  timber  works,  supporting  floors,  roofs,  etc. 

Fnrring.— The  furring  of  those  scantlings  or  laths  upon  the  edges  of 
any  number  of  timbers  in  a  range,  when  such  timbers  are  out  of  the  sur- 
face they  were  intended  to  form,  either  from  their  gravity  or  in  couse- 
ice  ot  an  original  deficiency  of  the  timbers  in  their  depth.     Thus  the 
ibers  ot  a  floor,  though  level  at  first,  oftentimes  require  to  be  furred; 
same  operation  is  frequently  necessary  in  the  reparation  of  old  roofs 


GLOSSARY.  113 

mid  the  same  work  is  required   sometimes  in  new  as  well  as  old  floors.— 
Papworih. 

Geometrical  Stair.— A  flight  of  stairs,  supported  only  by  the  wall  at 

one  end  of  the  steps. 

Geometrical  Elevation.— A  drawing  of  the  front  or  side  of  a  building, 
the  projection  of  a  vertical  plane  of  the  front  or  aide  of  a  building  or 
other  object. 

Ground-joists,  are  joists  supporting  the  floor  immediately  above  the 
ground. 

Ground  floor.— The  lowest  story  of  a  building. 

Half-space,  or  resting  place.  The  interval  between  two  flights  of  steps 
in  a  staircase. 

Hall.— The  first  large  apartment  on  entering  a  house.  The  public 
room  of  a  corporative  body.  A  manor-house. 

Hall. — A  name  applied  indifferently  to  the  same  large  apartment  on 
entering  a  house,  to  the  public  room  of  a  corporative  body;  a  court  of 
justice  or  a  manor-house. 

Vitruvixis  mentions  three  sorts  of  halls;  the  Tetrastyle,  which  has  four 
columns  supporting  the  ceiling;  the  Corinthian,  which  has  columns  all 
around,  and  is  vaulted;  and  the  Egyptian,  which  has  a  peristyle  of 
Corinthian  columns,  bearing  a  second  order  with  a  ceiling.  These  were 
called  ceci.  In  magnificent  edifices,  where  the  hall  is  larger  and  loftier 
than  ordinary,  and  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  house,  it  is  called  a 
saloon;  and  a  royal  apartment  consists  of  a  hall  or  chamber  of  guards,  a 
chamber,  an  antechamber,  a  cabinet  chamber,  and  a  gallery. 

Halving. — The  junction  of  two  pieces  of  timber,  by  inserting  one  into 
the  other. 

Hand-rail,  of  a  stair,  a  rail  raised  upon  slender  posts,  called  balusters, 
intended  to  assist  persons  in  ascending  and  descending,  and  to  protect 
them  from  falling  down  the  well-hole.  (See  sections  at  Figs.  118,  119, 
120,  121,  122  and  123). 


Fig.  118. 

Hnllow  newel  —An  opening  in  the  middle  of  the  staircase.  The  t«-rm 
Is  used  in  contradistinction  to  solid  newel,  into  which  the  ends  of  the  steps 
are  built.  In  the  hollow  newel,  or  well-hole,  the  steps  are  only  support, d 
nt  one  end  by  the  surrounding  wall  of  the  staircase,  the  ends  next  the 
hollow  being  unsupported.— Nicholson. 


GLOSSARY. 


Fig.  120. 


Fig.  121. 


.  122. 


Fig.  123. 


GLOSSARY.  lie 

Housing.— The  space  excavated  out  of  a  body,  for  the  insertion  of 
some  part  of  the  extremity  of  another,  in  order  to  fasten  the  two  together: 
thus  the  string-board  of  a  stair  is  most  frequently  excavated,  or  notched 
out  for  the  reception  of  steps.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  niche  for 
containing  a  statue. — Nicholson. 

Joinery.— That  branch  in  building  confined  to  the  nicer  and  more  or- 
namental parts  of  carpentry. 

Joinery.— The  practice  of  framing  or  joining  wood  for  the  internal  and 
external  finishings  of  houses;  thus  the  covering  and  lining  of  rough  walls, 
the  covering  of  rough  timbers,  the  manufacture  of  doors,  shutters, 
sashes,  stairs,  and  the  like  are  classed  under  this  head. 

Joint. — The  surface  of  separation  between  two  bodies  brought  into 
contact  and  held  firmly  together,  either  by  some  cementing  medium,  or 
by  the  weight  of  one  body  lying  upon  another.  A  joint  is  not  merely  the 
contact  of  two  surfaces,  though  the  nearer  they  approach  the  more  per- 
fect the  joint.  In  masonry,  the  distances  of  the  planes  intended  to  form 
the  joint  is  comparatively  considerable  because  of  the  coarseness  of  the 
particles  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  cement. 

Joists. — The  timbers  to  which  the  boards  of  a  floor  or  the  laths  of  a 
ceiling  are  nailed. 

Kerf.— A  slit  or  cut  in  a  piece  of  timber  or  in  a  stone,  usually  ap- 
plied to  that  made  by  a  saw  *or  axe. 

Keys.— In  naked  flooring  are  pieces  of  timber  fixed  in  between  the 
joists  by  mortise  and  tenon;  when  these  are  fastened  with  their  ends  pro- 
jecting against  sides,  they  are  termed  strutting  pieces. 

Keys.— Pieces  inserted  in  boards  to  prevent  warping. 

Knee.— A  convex  bend  in  the  back  of  a  hand-rail. 

Knee.— A  part  of  the  back  of  a  hand-railing  of  a  convex  form,  the  re- 
verse of  a  ramp,  which  is  a  back  of  a  hand-rail  and  is  concave;  also,  any 
piece  of  timber  bent  to  an  angular  joint. 

Landing.— The  terminating  floor  of  a  flight  of  stairs,  either  above  or 
below. — fapworth. 

Members.— The  different  parts  of  a  building,  the  different  parts  of  an 
entablature,  the  different  mouldings  of  a  cornice,  etc. 

Mortise.— In  carpentry,  a  hole  cut  in  a  piece  of  wood,  to  receive  a  cor- 
responding projection  formed  upon  another  piece. 

The  labor  of  making  deep  mortises,  in  hard  wood,  may  be  lessen 
first  boring  a  number  of  holes  with  the  auger  in  the  part  to  I. 
as  the  compartments  between  may  then  more  easily  be  cut  away  by  tl 

C  BefOM  employing  the  saw  to  cut  the  shoulder  of  a  tenon  in  neat  work, 
if  the  line  of  its  entrance  be  correctly  determined  by  nicking  the  place 
with  a  paring  chisel,  there  will  be  no  danger  of  the  wood 

thirtheHneatness8and  durability  of  a  juncture  depend  entirely  on  the 
sides  of  the  mortise  coming  exactly  in  contact  with  the  Bides  of  the  te 
and 'as  this  is  not  easily  performed  when  a  mortise  is  to  pass  enl 
through  a  piece  of  stuff,  the  space  allotted   for  it  should  be  fi 
rectly  gauged  on  both  sides.    One  half  is  then  to  be  cut  from  one  Bid*, 
and  the  other  half  from  the  opposite  Kitle;  and  as  any  irr^uUntu.K  which 
may  arise  from  an  error  in  the  direction  of   the  chisel  will  thus   1 


Il6  GLOSSARY. 

fined  to  the  middle  of  the  mortise,  they  will  be  of  very  little  hindrance  to 
the  exact  fitting  of  the  sides  of  the  mortise  and  tenon.  Moreover,  as  the 
tenon  is  expanded  by  wedges  after  it  is  driven  in,  the  sides  of  the  mortise 
may,  in  a  small  degree,  be  inclined  towards  each  other,  near  the  shoulders 
of  the  tenon. 

Mouldings.— A  term  applied  to  all  the  varieties  of  outline  or  contour 
given  to  the  angles  of  the  various  subordinate  parts  and  features  of 
buildings,  whether  projections  or  cavities,  such  as  cornices,  capitals, 
bases,  door  or  window  jambs,  and  heads,  etc.  There  are  eight  sorts  of 
regular  mouldings,  viz.,  the  Ovolo,  the  Talon,  the  Cyma,  the  Cavetto,  the 
Torus,  the  Astragal,  the  Scotia,  and  the  Fillet. 

Nails,  used  in  building,  are  small  metallic  spikes  serving  to  bind  or 
fasten  the  parts  together.  There  are  several  kinds  of  nails,  called  by 
numerous  names.  In  the  middle  ages,  nails  were  frequently  used  much 
ornamented,  of  which  there  are  several  very  beautiful  existing  speci- 
mens, particularly  in  church  doors  and  the  gates  of  large  mansions. 

Naked. — This  term  is  applied,  in  architecture,  to  a  plain  surface,  or 
that  which  is  unfinished;  as  the  naked  walls,  the  naked  flooring,  that  is, 
uncovered;  the  word  is  sometimes  applied  to  flat  surfaces  before  the 
mouldings  and  other  ornaments  have  been  fixed. 

Newel. — In  architecture,  the  upright  post  or  central  column,  round 
which  the  steps  of  a  circular  staircase  are  made  to  wind;  being  that  part 
of  the  staircase  by  which  they  are  sustained. 

The  newel  is,  properly,  a  cylinder  of  stone  which  bears  on  the  ground, 
and  is  formed  by  the  ends  of  the  steps  of  the  winding-stairs. 

There  are  also  newels  of  wood,  which  are  pieces  of  wood  placed  perpen- 
dicularly, receiving  the  tenons  of  the  steps  of  wooden  stairs  into  their 
mortises,  and  wherein  are  fitted  the  shafts  and  rests  of  the  staircase,  and 
the  flight  of  each  story.  In  some  of  the  Tudor  and  Elizabethan  resi- 
dences, some  very  fine  examples  maybe  seen  of  the  newel  richly  orna- 
mented, and  adding  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  staircase. — Nicholson. 

Newel. — The  central  column  round  which  the  steps  of  a  circular  stair- 
case wind;  the  principal  post  at  the  angles  and  foot  of  a  staircase.  In 
the  Tudor  and  Elizabeth!  an  residences  very  beautiful  examples  exist, 
adding  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  staircase. 

Pedestal. — The  square  support  of  a  column,  statue,  etc. ;  and  the  base 
or  lower  part  of  an  order  of  columns:  it  consists  of  a  plinth  for  a  base; 
the  die;  and  a  talon  crowned  for  a  cornice.  When  the  height  and  width 
are  equal,  it  is  termed  a  square  pedestal ;  one  which  supports  two  columns, 
a  double  pedestal;  and  if  it  supports  a  row  of  columns  without  any  break, 
it  is  a  continued  pedestal.  The  lowest  and  most  simple  kind  of  pedestel 
is  the  Tuscan,  which  is  about  thr«e  modules  in  height  by  one  authority, 
and  five  by  another. 

Pitchlng-pieee.— A  horizontal  timber,  with  one  of  its  ends  wedged  into 
the  wall  at  the  top  of  a  flight  of  stairs,  to  support  the  upper  end  of  the 
rough  strings. 

Plan.— The  draught  of  a  building  taken  on  the  ground  floor,  showing 
the  distribution,  form  and  extent  of  its  several  rooms,  passages,  etc.  In 
plans  of  buildings,  the  massive  parts,  as  walls,  etc.,  are  generally  distin- 
guished by  a  dark  shade,  or  shade  of  tints  approaching  the  color  of  brick 
or  stone.  In  a  geometrical  plan,  the  parts  are  represented  in  their 
natural  proportions.  The  raised  plan  of  a  building  is  the  elevation. 


GLOSSARY. 


117 


Plancere.— The  underpart  of  the  roof  of  a  corona,  which  is  the  superior 
part  of  the  coruice  betweeu  two  cymatia. 

Platband. — Any  square  mouldiiig  with  little  projection;  the  fascia  of 
an  architrave;-  the  list  between  the  fluting*,  etc. 

Platform.— A  row  of  beams  which  support  the  timber  work  of  a  roof, 
lying  at  the  top  of  a  wall;  a  terrace  or  open  walk  on  the  top  of  a  build- 
ing. 

Plinth.— The  solid  support  or  base  of  a  column,  or  pedestal.  In  a 
wall,  the  term  plinth  is  applied  to  two  or  three  row»  of  bricks  which  pro- 
ject from  it  to  auy  flat  moulding  in  a  front  wall,  to  make  the  floors  BUS 
tain  the  eaves,  or  the  larmier  of  a  chimney. 

Plug  and  Feather.— A  mode  of  dividing  large  stone  by  means  of  a  large 
tapering  wedge,  or  key,  and  wedged-shaped  pieces  of  iron,  called  feathers, 
driven  into  holes,  previously  drilled,  into  the  rock  to  forcibly  split  it. 

Ramp.— A  concave  bend  in  the  back  of  a  hand-rail. 

Recess.— A  cavity  in  a  wall,  left  either  for  ornament  or  use  when  it  is 
to  receive  some  furniture,  as  a  sideboard,  or  to  add  to  the  quantity  of 
room;  and  for  ornament  when  made  in  the  form  of  a  niche,  to  give  beauty 
and  variety  to  the  building. 

Sagging.— The  bending  of  a  body  in  the  middle  by  its  own  weight. 

Scantling. — The  measure  to  which  a  piece  of  timber  is  to  be  or  has 
been  cut. 

Scantling. — The  dimensions  of  a  piece  of  timber  in  breadth  and  thick- 
ness; also,  quarter! ugs  for  a  partition,  when  under  five  inches  square, 
also  applied  to  stone  in  a  cubical  form. 

Scarfing. — The  joining  of  two  pieces  of  timber  by  bolting  or  nailing 
transversely  together,  so  that  the  two  appear  but  one. 

Scarfing.— The  joining  and  bolting  of  two  pieces  of  timber  together 
transversely,  so  that  the  two  appear  as  one. 

Scenography. — The  representation  of  solids  in  perspective. 

Scotia.  —The  hollow  moulding  in  the  base  of  a  column,  between  the 
fillets  of  the  tori. 

Scotia.— A  semi-circular  concave  moulding  in  the  bases  of  Ionic  col- 
umns. Also,  the  groove  or  channel  cut  in  the  projecting  angle  of  the  Doric 
corona. 

Scroll.— A  carved  curvilinear  ornament,  somewhat  resembling  in  pro- 
file the  turnings  of  a  ram's  horns. — Hatfield. 

Skeleton. — In  carpentry,  a  shell  or  framing.  In  surveying,  the  outline 
of  a  trigonometrical  survey.  In  artillery,  a  light  shell  for  projecting  com- 
bustibles. In  cotton- spinning,  a  kind  of  case  frame.  A  skeleton  key,  a  key 
constructed  to  fit  almost  any  set  of  wards  in  a  lock. 

Sliding  rule.— A  rule  constructed  with  logarithmic  lines,  formed  upon 
a  slip  of  wood,  brass  or  ivory,  inserted  in  a  groove,  in  a  rule  made  to 
slide  longitudinally  therein,  so  that  by  means  of  another  scale  upon  the 
rule  itself  the  contents  of  a  surface  or  solid  may  be  known. 

Soffit.—  In  architecture,  the  internal  concave  surface  of  the  arch.  Any 
timber  ceiling  formed  of  cross-beams  or  flying  cornices,  the  square  «-.nn 
partments  or  panels  of  which  are  enriched  with  sculpture,  painting,  or 
gilding. 


1x8  GLOSSARY. 

Solids  are  all  bodies  that  have  three  dimensions;  and  among  geo- 
metricians those  that  are  terminated  by  regular  planes  are  called  regular 
solids,  such  as  the  tetrahedron,  hexahedron,  octahedron,  dodecahedron, 
aud  icosahedron. 

Spandril.— The  angle  formed  by  a  stairway. 

Spandril  bracketing. — A  cradling  of  brackets  fixed  between  one  or 
more  curves,  each  in  u  vertical  plane,  and  in  tho  circumference  of  a 
circle  whose  plane  is  horizontal. 

Spherical  bracketing. — Brackets  of  such  a  form  that  the  surface  of 
lath  aud  plaster  will  form  a  spherical  surface. 

Spiral. — A  curve  line  of  a  circular  kind  which  in  its  progress  recedes 
from  its  centre. 

Spiral. — Tn  geometry,  a  curve-line  of  the  circular  kind,  which  in  its  pro- 
gress always  recedes  more  aud  more  from  its  centre.  In  architecture,  a 
curve  that  ascends  winding  about  a  cone  or  spire,  so  that  all  its  points 
continually  approach  its  axis. 

Spirit-leYel. — A  cylindrical  glass  tube,  filled  with  spirit  of  wine,  except 
a  small  bubble  of  air.  In  whatever  position  the  tube  may  be  placed,  the 
bubble  of  air  will  always  tend  to  the  highest  part  of  it;  but  when  placed 
in  a  perfectly  horizontal  position,  the  bubble  will  remain  stationary  at 
tbe  centre  of  the  tube. 

Splay.— A  slanting  or  bevelling  in  the  sides  of  an  opening  to  a  wall  for 
n  window  or  door,  so  that  the  outside  profile  of  the  window  is  larger 
tlian  that  of  the  inside;  it  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  ad- 
mission of  light.  It  is  a  term  applied  to  whatever  has  one  side  making 
an  oblique  angle  with  the  other:  thus,  the  heading  joists  of  a  boarded 
floor  are  frequently  splayed  iu  their  thickness.  The  word  fining  is  some- 
times applied  to  an  aperture,  in  the  same  sense  as  splayed. 

Spring  Bevel  of  a  Rail.— The  angle  made  by  the  top  of  the  plant 
with  a  vertical  plane  touching  the  ends  of  the  rail  piece,  which  terminates 
the  concave  side. 

Squaring  a  Hand-rail.— The  method  of  cutting  a  plank  to  the  form  of  a 

v  staircase,  so  that  all  the  vertical  sections  may  be  right  angles. 

Stairs,  (from  the  Saxo,,  stager)  in  a  building,  the  steps  whereby  to  as- 
cend and  descend  from  one  story  to  another 

ho^Soml  Fia -ep?  °f  S'airS  in  Peneral  nse  in  comm™  dwelling 


GLOSSARY.  119 

4  inches,  or  160  inches,  160  ~  7  =  22  3-7,  which  would  be  the  number  re- 
quired, but  as  all  the  steps  must  be  of  equal  heights,  we  should  rather 
take  23  risers,  provided  the  staircase  room  would  allow  it,  aud  BO  make 
the  height  of  each  somewhat  less  than  7  inches. 

The  most  certain  method  of  erecting  a  staircase  is,  to  provide  a  rod  of 
sufficient  length  to  reach  from  one  floor  to  another,  divided  into  aa  many 
equal  parts  as  the  intended  number  of  risers,  and  try  every  step  as  it  is 
set,  to  its  exact  height.  The  breadth  of  the  staircase  may  be  from  6  to 
20  feet,  according  to  the  use  or  application  of  the  building,  or  the  form  or 
proportions  of  the  plan. 

If  the  steps  be  less  than  3  feet  in  length,  the  staircase  becomes  incon- 
venient for  the  passing  of  furniture,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  small 
houses. 

Though  it  is  desirable  to  have  such  rules  as  are  here  laid  down  for 
regulating  the  proportions  of  the  heights,  breadths,  and  lengths,  of  steps, 
architects  and  workmen  cannot  be  so  strictly  tied  to  them,  but  that  they 
may  vary  them  as  circumstances  may  demand.  —  Nicholson. 

Stairs  are  constructions  composed  of  horizouital  planes  elevated  above 
each  other,  forming  steps;  affording  the  means  of  communication  be- 
tween the  different  stories  of  a  building. 

In  the  distribution  of  a  house  of  several  stories,  the  stairs  occupy  an 
important  place.  In  new  constructions  their  form  maybe  regular,  but 
in  the  reparation  or  remodelling  of  old  buildings,  the  first  consideration 
is  generally  to  make  the  distribution  suitable  for  the  living  and  lodging 
rooms,  and  then  to  convert  to  the  use  of  the  stairs  the  spaces  which  may 
remain;  giving  to  them  such  forms  in  plan  as  will  render  them  agreea- 
ble to  the  sight,  and  commodious  in  the  use. 

When  houses  began  to  be  built  in  stories,  the  stairs  were  placed  from 
story  to  story  in  straight  flights  like  ladders.  They  were  erected  on 
the  exterior  of  the  building,  aud  to  shelter  them  when  so  placed,  great 
projection  was  given  to  the  roofs.  To  save  the  extent  of  space  required 
by  straight  flights,  the  stairs  were  made  to  tnrn  upon  themselves  in  a 
spiral  form,  and  were  inclosed  in  turrets.  A  newel,  either  square  or 
round  reaching  from  the  ground  to  the  roof,  served  to  support  the  inner 
ends  of  the  steps,  aud  the  outer  ends  were  let  into  the  walls,  or  supported 
on  notched  boards  attached  to  the  walls. 

At  a  later  period  the  stairs  came  to  be  inclosed  within   the  b 
itself  and  for  a  long  time  preserved  the  spiral  form,  which 


Tne     artment  in  which  the  stair  i.  place.1.  i.  callej  tie 

"'metorizoDlal  part  ot  a  step  i.  called  the  frarf.  the  rertical  part  the  „£ 
the  l,re»dth  or  distance  from  riser  to  riser  »•*»*»  <"tl»I10< 


are  of  co0rse 

C,  the   step,  .re  narrower  .t  one  end  than  the  olh«,   they  .r. 
"•  ste    ^^ 


ler  space. 


I20  GLOSSARY. 

When  (lie  landing  occupies  the  whole  width  of  the  staircase  it  is  called 

So  much  of  a  stair  as  is  included  between  two  landings  is  called  a 
Hl(jht,  especially  if  the  risers  are  parallel  with  each  other:  the  steps  in 
"this  case  are  fliers. 

The  outward  edge  of  a  step  is  named  the  nosing  ;  if  it  project  beyond 
the  riser,  so  as  to  receive  a  hollow  moulding  glued  under  it,  it  is  a 
moulded  nosing. 

A  straight-edge  laid  on  the  nosings  represents  the  angle  of  the  stairs, 
and  is  denominated  the  line  of  nosings. 

The  raking  pieces  which  support  the  ends  of  the  steps  are  called  strings. 
The  inner  one,  placed  against  the  wall,  is  the  watt  string  ;  the  other  the 
outer  string.  If  the  outer  string  be  cut  to  mitre  with  the  end  of  the 
riser,  it  is  a  cut  and  mitered  siring ;  but  when  the  strings  are  grooved  to  re- 
ceive the  ends  of  the  treads  and  risers,  they  are  said  to  be  housed,  and 
the  grooves  are  termed  housings. 

Stairs  in  which  the  outer  string  of  the  upper  flight  stands  perpendicu- 
larly over  that  of  the  lower  flight  are  called  dog-legged  stairs,  otherwise 
newel  stairs,  from  the  fact  of  a  piece  of  stuff  called  a  newel,  being  used  as 
the  axis  of  the  spiral  of  the  stair;  the  newel  is  generally  ornamented  by 
turning,  or  in  some  other  way.  The  outer  strings  in  such  stairs  are  tenoned 
into  the  newel,  as  also  are  the  first  and  last  risers  of  the  flight. — Newland. 

Staircase.— A  term  applied  to  the  whole  set  of  stairs,  with  the  walls, 
supporting  the  steps,  leading  from  one  story  to  another.  The  same  stair- 
case frequently  conducts  to  the  top  of  the  building,  and  thus  consists  of  as 
many  stories  as  the  building  itself. 

When  the  height  of  the  story  .is  considerable,  resting  places  become 
necessary,  which  go  under  the  name  of  quarter-paces  and  half-paces,  ac- 
cording as  the  passenger  has  to  pass  a  rigkt  angle,  or  two  right  angles; 
that  is,  as  he  has  to  describe  a  quadrant  or  a  semi-circle.  In  very  high 
stories  that  admit  of  sufficient  head-room,  and  where  the  space  allowed 
for  the  staircase  is  confined,  the  ^staircase  may  have  two  revolutions  i  a 
the  height  of  one  story,  which  will  lessen  the  height  of  the  steps;  but  in 
grand  staircases,  only  one  revolution  can  be  admitted,  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  space  on  the  plan  being  always  proportioned  to  the  height 
of  the  building,  so  as  to  admit  of  fixed  proportions. 

In  contriving  a  grand  edifice,  particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
situation  ot  the  space  occupied  by  the  stairs,  so  as  to  give  them  the  most 
easy  command  of  the  rooms. 

With  regard  to  the  lighting  of  a  grand  staircase,  a  skylight  or  rather 
lantern,  is  the  most  appropriate;  for  the  light  thus  admitted,  is  powerful, 
and  the  design  admits  of  greater  elegance;  indeed,  where  the  staircase 
does  not  adjoin  the  exterior  walls,  this  is  the  only  method  by  which 
light  can  be  admitted. 

In  small  buildings,  the  position  of  the  staircase  is  indicated  by  the 
general  distribution  of  the  plan;  but  in  large  edifices,  this  is  not  so  obvi- 
ous, but  must  at  last  be  determined  by  considering  naturally  its  connec- 
tion with  other  apartments.— Nicholson. 

Staircases. — It  was  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  that  staircases  first  be- 
came features  in  English  houses.  Hand-rails  and  balustrades,  unlike  the 
rickety  contrivances  of  modern  days,  were  of  gigantic  proportions,  and 
presented  at  ouce  a  bold,  picturesque,  and  secure  appearance;  yet  so 
variously  and  fancifully  decorated,  that  their  effect  was  always  pleasing 
and  free  from  clumsiness.  In  the  middle  of  Verulam  House  was  a  deli- 


GLOSSARY.  121 

cate  staircase  of  wood,  which  was  cnriously  carved;  and  on  the  post* 
of  every  interstice  was  fixed  some  figure,  as  a  grave  divine  with  his  book 
and  spectacles,  a  mendicant  friar,  etc.  In  two  of  the  principal  chambers 
of  Wressil  Castle  are  small  beautiful  staircases,  with  octagon  screens. 
embattled  at  the  top,  and  covered  with  very  bold  sculpture,  containing 
double  flights  of  stairs,  winding  round  each  other,  after  the  design  of 
Palladio.  The  east  stairs  at  Wimbledon  House  lead  from  the  marble  par- 
lor to  the  great  gallery  and  the  dining-room,  and  are  richly  adorned  with 
wainscot  of  oak  round  the  outsides  thereof,  all  well  gilt  with  fillets  and 
stars  of  gold.  The  steps  of  these  stairs  were  in  number  33,  and  6  feet 
6  inches  long,  adorned  with  5-foot  paces,  all  varnished  black  and  white, 
and  chequer-work;  the  highest  of  which  foot-pace  is  a  very  large  one, 
and  benched  with  a  wainscot  bench,  all  garnished  with  gold. 

Staircases,  in  ordinary  modern  practice,  should  be  light,  spacious,  and 
easy,  seeming  to  invite  people  to  ascend.  Principal  staircases  should 
not  be  narrower  than  4  feet,  so  that  if  two  persons  meet  thereon,  they 
may  pass  each  other  with  convenience;  bmt  they  may  be  extended  in 
breadth  to  10  or  12  feet,  according  to  the  importance  of  the  building. 
The  steps  should  never  exceed  6  inches  in  height,  nor  be  less  than  4 
inches;  but  this  latter  height  is  only  allowable  in  very  wide  staircases. 
The  breadth,  or  the  flat  horizontal  part,  which  is  called  the  trend  of  the 
step,  should  not  be  less  than  a  foot,  nor  exceed  15  inches. —  Weale. 

StaTCS. —/n  joinery,  the  boards  that  are  joined  together  laterally,  in 
order  to  form  a  hollow  cylinder,  cylindroid,  cone,  or  conoid,  or  any  frus- 
tum of  these  bodies.  The  shafts  of  columns,  in  joinery,  are  frequently 
glued  up  in  staves. 

Steps,  (from  the  Saxon,  step),  the  degrees  of  a  staircase,  by  which  we 
rise,  consisting  of  two  parts,  one  horizontal,  called  treads,  the  other  verti- 
cal called  risers.  When  steps  are  placed  round  the  circumference  of  a 
circle,  or  an  ellipsis,  or  any  segments  of  them,  they  are  called  winders ; 
but  when  the  sides  are  straight,  they  are  calledXyers.  The  flrst  or  lower 
step,  with  a  scroll  wrought  upon  its  end,  according  to  the  plan  of  the 
hand-rail  is  called  the  curtail  step. 

Stretched  out.— A  term  applied  to  a  surface  that  will  jnst  cover  a  body 
so  extended  that  all  its  parts  are  in  a  plane,  or  may  be  made  to  coincide 
with  a  plane. 

Striking  —A  term  used  to  denote  the  draught  of  lines  on  the  surface 
of  a  body-  the  term  is  also  used  to  denote  the  drawing  of  lines  on  the 
face  of  a  piece  of  stuff  for  mortises,  and  cutting  the  shoulders  of  tenons. 
Another  application  of  the  word  occurs  in  the  practice  of  joinery,  to 
note  the  act  of  running  a  moulding  with  a  plane     The  striking  of  a  centre 
is  the  removal  of  the  timber  framing  upon  which  an  arch  IH     Jilt,  af 
its  completion. 

String  or  String  Pie<*.-That  part  of  a  flight  of  stairs  which  forms 
its  ceiling  or  sofite.  See  Carriage. 

Strine  Board.-In  wooden  stairs,  the  board  next  the  well-hole  which 
recdvelfthVends  of  the  steps;  its  face  follows  the   direction  of    he  well  - 
hole,  whatever  the  form:  when  curved,  it  is  frequently  formed  in  tb  ck- 
nesses  glued  together,  though  sometimes  it  is  got  out  of  the  solid,  hi 
a  hnnd-rail. 

Strlnir-board  -In  wooden  stairs,  a  board  placed  next  to  the  well -bole, 
and  terfflrng  the  ends  of  the  steps.  The  face  of  string-boards  fol- 


122 


GLOSSARY. 


lows  the  direction  of  the  well-hole,  whether  it  be  prismatic  or  an  m^ 
verted  cone.  String-boards  are  sometimes  glued  in  several  thicknesses, 
witu  the  fibres  of  the  wood  running  in  the  direction  of  the  steps;  some- 
times they  are  wrought  out  of  solid,  like  a  hand-rail,  the  grain  of  the 
wood  being  in  the  same  direction;  and  they  are  also  glued  up  like 
columns,  viz.,  having  the  fibres  vertical.  Brackets  are  most  frequently 
placed  upon  the  string-boards,  and  mitered  into  the  risers.— Nicholson. 

Tangent. — In  geometry,  a  right  line  perpendicularly  raised  on  the  ex- 
tremity of  a  radius,  which  touches  a  circle  so  that  it  would  never  cut  it, 
although  infinitely  produced,  or,  in  other  words,  it  would  never  come 
within  its  circumference. 

Templet.— A  mould  used  in  masonry  and  brickwork,  for  the  purpose 
of  cutting  or  setting  the  work.  When  great  nicety  is  required,  two  temp- 
lets should  be  used,  one  for  moulding  the  end  of  the  work,  and  its  re- 
verse for  trying  the  face.  Where  many  stones  or  bricks  are  required  to 
be  done  with  the  same  mould,  the  templets  ought  to  be  be  made  of 
copper. — Nicholson. 

Tenon. — In  carpentry,  the  square  end  of  a  piece  of  wood  or  metal  di- 
minished to  one-third  of  its  thickness,  to  be  received  into  a  hole  in  an- 
other piece,  called  the  mortise,  for  the  joining  or  fastening  of  the  two 
together. 

Tread  of  the  step  of  a  stair.— The  horizontal  part  of  the  step. 
Trimmed.— When  a  piece   of  work  is  fitted   between  two  others  pre- 
viously executed,  it  is  said  to  be  trimmed  in  between  them;  thus,  a  parti- 
tion wall  is  said  to  be  trimmed  up  between   the  floor  and   the  ceiling;  a 
post  between  two  beams,  a  trimmer  between  joists,  etc.  —  Nicholson. 

Trimmed,  is  also  applied  to  the  putting  of  anything  into  shape,  by 
cutting  it  away  by  degrees  until  it  be  of  the  proposed  form. — Nicholson. 

Trimmed-out. — An  expression  applied  to  the  trimmers  of  stairs,  when 
brought  forward  to  receive  the  rough  strings. 

Trimmer. — A  small  beam  into  which  the  ends  of  several  joists  are 
framed.  Beams  of  this  kind  are  either  stair-trimmers,  hearth-trimmers, 
or  tail-trimmers. — Nicholson. 

Trimming  Joists.— The  two  joists  into  which  each  end  of  the  trimmer 
is  framed. 

The  distance  of  the  trimming-joists,  when  employed  in  fire-places, 
must  be  such  as  to  take  in  not  only  the  fire-place,  but  the  flues  on  each 
side  of  it.  Trimming-joists  ought  to  be  stronger  than  the  other  joists, 
on  account  of  the  support  they  have  to  give. — Nicholson. 

Veneer. — A  very  thin  leaf  of  wood,  of  a  superior  quality,  for  covering 
doors  or  articles  of  furniture,  made  of  an  inferior  wood.  —  Nicholson. 

Vestibule.— The  place  before  the  entrance  to  Roman  houses;  it  was 
surrounded  by  a  wall.  In  modern  houses  the  small  ante-room  which 
leads  from  the  outside  to  the  principal  hall. 

Vitruvian  Scroll. — A  peculiar  pattern,  consisting  of  convolved  undu- 
lations, used  in  classical  architecture. 

Volute. — The  characteristic  ornaments  and  indicial  marks  of  the  Ionic 
capital  formed  by  circumvolving  spiral  mouldings  are  termed  volutes. 
The  small  circle  in  which  the  spiral  or  springs  terminate  is  called  the 
eye  of  the  volute.  The  introduction  of  volutes  is  said  by  Vitruvius  to 
have  arisen  from  an  imitation  of  the  mode  in  which  women  were  for- 


GLOSSARY.  123 

mevly  accustomed  to  ornament  their  huir;  but  they  are  thought,  with 
greater  probability,  to  have  represented  the  horns  of  the  Amuionmn 
Jupiter. 

Wedge. — The  wedge  is  a  solid  piece  of  wood  or  metal,  generally  made 
in  the  form  of  a  triangle  prism,  of  which  the  two  ends  or  bases  are  eqiml 
and  similar  plane  triangles  and  the  three  sides  rectangular  parallelo- 
grams: and  it  is  called  rectangular,  isosceles,  or  scalene,  according  as  its 
equal  and  similar  bases  are  composed  of  right-angled,  isosceles,  or  sca- 
lene triangles.  As  a  mechanical  power,  the  wedge  performs  its  office, 
sometimes  in  raising  heavy  bodies,  but  more  frequently  in  dividing  or 
cleaving  them;  hence  all  those  instruments  which  are  used  in  separating 
the  parts  of  bodies,  such  as  axes,  adzes,  knives,  swords,  coulters, 
chisels,  planes,  saws,  files,  nails,  spades,  etc.,  are  only  different  modifi- 
cations that  fall  under  the  general  denomination  of  the  wedge. 

Wedging. — The  insertion  of  triangular  prisms  into  the  end  of  a  tenon, 
to  make  it  till  the  mortise  so  completely  as  to  prevent  its  being  with- 
drawn. 

Well.— The  place  occupied  by  the  flight  of  stairs.  The  space  left  be- 
yond the  ends  of  the  steps  is  called  the  well-hole. 

Well-Staircase. — A  winding  staircase  of  ascent,  or  descent,  to  differ- 
ent parts  of  a  building,  so  called  from  the  walls  enclosing  it  resembling 
a  well;  called  frequently  a  geometrical  staircase. 

Winders. — Stairs,  steps  not  parallel  to  each  other. 

The  winders  are  supported  by  rough  pieces  called  bearers,  wedged 
into  the  wall,  and  secured  to  the  strings. 

When  the  front  string  is  ornamented  with  brackets,  it  is  called  a 
bracketed  stair. 


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STAIR-BUILDING  MADE  EASY. 

BEING  A  FULL  AND  CLEAR  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE 

ART  OF   BUILDING  THE   BODIES,    CARRIAGES,   AND  CASES 
FOR  ALL  KINDS  OF  STAIRS   AND  STEPS, 

Together  with  Illustrations    showing:    the    Ulainiier   of 

Laying1   Out   Stairs,    Forming    Treads    and    Risers, 

Building   Cylinders,  Preparing    Strings, 

With  Instructions  for  Making  Carriages  for  Common, 
Platform,  Dog-L.egged,  and  Winding  Stairs. 

To  which  is  added  an  Illustrated  Glossary  of  Terms  used  iu  Stair-Build- 

ing, and    Designs    for    Newels,    Balusters.  Brackets,  Stair- 

Mouldings,  and  Sections  of  Hand-Rails. 


By  FRED.  T.   HODGSON. 


work  takes  hold  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  subject,  and 
carries  the  student  along  by  easy  stages,  until  the  entire  subject  of  Stair- 
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This  book,  and  the  one  on  HAND-RAILING,  described  below,  cover  nearly 
the  whole  subject  of  STAIK-BUILDING. 

A  NEW  SYSTEM  OF 

HAND-RAILING, 

Or,  How  to  Cut  Hand-Railing  for  Circular  and  other 

Stairs,  Square  from  the  Plank,   without  tip, 

aid   of  a   Falling   Mould. 

THE    SYSTEM   IS  NEW,    NOVEL,    ECONOMIC,    AND 
EASILY    LEARNED. 

Rules,  Instructions,    and     Working   Drawings  for   Building   Rails  for 
Seven  Different  Kinds  of  Stairs  are  given. 


BY  AN  OLD  STAIR-BUILDER. 

Edited    and    Corrected    by    FRED,    T.    HODOSON, 


JUST    PUBLISH KD. 


A  New  and  Important  Work  for  Architects,  Builders,  Plumbers, 
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The  Steel  Square 


AND   ITS    USES. 


By    FRED.    T. 


This  is  the  only  work  on  THE  STEEL  SQUARE  AND  ITS  USES  ever 
published.  It  is  Thorough,  Exhaustive,  Clear,  aucl  Easily  Understood. 
Confounding  terms  and  scientific  phrases  have  been  religiously  avoided 
where  possible,  and  everything  in  the  book  has  been  made  so  plain  that 
a  boy  twelve  years  of  age,  possessing  ordinary  intelligence,  can  under- 
stand it  from  end  to  end. 

The  New  Edition  is  Illustrated  with  over  Seventy-five  Wood  cuts, 
showing  how  the  Square  may  be  used  for  solving  almost  every  problem 
in  the  whole  Art  of  Carpentry. 

The  following  synopsis  of  the  contents  of  the  work  will  give  some 
idea  of  its  character  and  scope. 


— History  of  the  "Square." — Descrip- 
tion, with  Explanations  of  the  Rules,  Fig- 
ures, Scales,  and  Divisions  shown  on  good 
Squares. 

—Brace  Rules.  Octagonal  Scale,  Board, 
Plank  and  Scantling  Rules,  fully  explained 
and  described. 

— How  to  lay  out  Rafters,  Hips,  Jack- 
Rafters,  Purlins,  Bevel  Works,  etc.,  etc. 

—Backing  for  Hips,  Lengths  and  Bevels 
of  Valley  Rafters.  Laying  out  Stairs  and 
Strings. 

— How  to  describe  Circles,  Ellipses, 
Parabolas  and  other  figures,  with  the 
Square. 

—How  to  obtain  Bevels  for  Hoppers 
and  all  kinds  of  Splayed  Work  and  Spring 
Mouldings,  by  the  Square. 

—Bisecting  Circles,  Proportion  of  Cir- 
cles, Division  of  Widths,  Bisection  of 


Angles,    Diminishing     Stiles,    Centering 

Circles,  etc.,  etc. 
—Theoretical    Rafters,  Cuts  for   Mitre 

Boxes,  Measurement  of  Surfaces,  including 

Painting,    Plastering,    Shingling,   Siding, 

Flooring,  Rough  Boarding,  Tinning  and 

Roofing. 
—Rules  for  describing    Octagons    and 

Polygons  of  every  description,  and  how 

to  find  their  angles  and  areas. 

— Rules  forfinding  the  lengths  of  Rafters 

and  Hips  of  Irregular  Roofs.  Cuts  for 
Equal  and  Unequal  Mitres,  Trusses  and 
Bevel  Timber  Work. 

—The  Development  of  Hip  and  Curved 
Roofs;  Veranda  Rafters,  Straight  and 
Curved  ;  Hopper  Cuts  of  all  kinds,  Angle 
Corner-pieces,  Splayed  Work  for  Gothic 
Heads,  etc.,  etc.,  and  many  other  things 
useful  to  the  Operative  Mechanic. 


Handsomely  Bound  in  Cloth  with  Gilt  Title. 
Price  OWE  DOLLAR, 


The  Carpenter's  Steel  Square, 


AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT. 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRKSS. 

••  This  little  work  consists  of  a  republication  of  some  papers  contributed  by  its  talented 
author  some  time  ago  to  the  A  ineruau  BmUer,  and  which  were  received  with  so  much 
favor  by  anisans,  for  whom  they  were  written,  as  to  induce  their  author  to  collect  them 
into  the  present  volume."  *  *  "The  work  is  well  illustrated  by 

upwards  of  fifty  cuts  which  have  been  well  engraved,  and  can  hardly  fail  to  gixe  any 
one  an  idea  of  the  capabilities  of  the  steel  square,  and  what  can  be  accomplished  from 
it  when  in  skilful  hands." — Journal  of  Franklin  Institute,  I'hiui. 

"  A  most  valuable  little  treatise  of  70  pages  upon  that  commonplace  subject,  the 
'steel  square,'  being  a  description  of  that  useful  tool,  and  its  uses  in  obtaining  the  lengths 
and  bevels  of  rafters,  hips,  groins,  braces,  brackets,  purlins,  collar  beams  and  jack  i afters, 
and  its  application  in  obtaining  the  bevels  and  cut*  forhoppers,  spring  moldings,  octa- 
gons, stairs,  diminished  stiles,  etc. ,  illustrated  by  over  50  wood  cuts.  Mr.  Hodgson  has 
succeeded  admirably  in  demonstrating  that  the  study  of  the  value  and  use  of  the 
square  is  by  no  means  the  dry  subject  one  would  suppose,  and  that  as  a  tool  in  the 
hands  of  an  intelligent  workm.in,  its  possibilities  are  far  beyond  the  standard  usually 
concetk-d  to  il.  Itis  a  valuable  book  for  theuseof  the  carpenter,  and  should  be  upon 
the  office  d°skof  every  retailer  of  lumber,  from  the  valuable  hints  it  will  give  him  as  a 
guide  to  his  negotiations  with  his  customers  in  figuring  out  their  wants.  It  is,  in  fact, 
uell  adapted  to  the  wants  of  every  man  who  has  a  shed  or  fence  to  erect  upon  his 
premises,  or  who  wishes  to  keep  a  check  upon  his  builder." — Xcirth-svtstern  Lumber- 
man, Chicago,  fit. 

"This  is  a  little  book  that  no  carpenter,  joiner,  cabinetmaker,  or  amateur  wood- 
worker, can  do  without,  if  they  wish  to  keep  up  with  the  times  in  their  several  branches 
ul"  trade. 

"  We  believe  this  is  the  first  and  only  book  that  has  been  written  on  this  subject 
:dGne,  and  we  must  say,  that  the  duty  of  writing  it  fell  into  good  hands  as  «he  author 
has  handled  his  subject  in  a  masterly  manner.  One  is  struck  with  astonishment  at  the 
number  of  difficult  and  apparently  intricate  problems  this  simple  instrument — the  square — 
is  made  to  solve,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  any  mechanic  who  can  read  the  figures  .m  thr 
lool  can  work  out  the  solutions.  The  lengths  and  bevels  of  rafters,  hips,  braces, 
trusses  purlins,  collar  beams,  and  jack  rafters  are  obtained  as  if  by  magic,  and  without 
thought  or  calculation. 

"  The  work  «R  handsomely  gotten  up,  printed  on  heavy  white  paper,  substantially 
bound,  and  cleanly  turned  out.  The  some  fifty  odd  wood  cuts  are  almost  equal  to  steel 
engravings,  and  the  whole  get-up  is  a  credit  to  both  author  and  publisher,  and  the  IM 
price  at  which  it  is  sold,  (75  cents),  places  it  within  reach  of  every  w.xxl  u  -rkcr.  nu 
matter  how  poor  he  may  be." — Enterprise,  Collingwood,  Out. 

"  It  is  a  timely  book  on  the  subjectm  hand,  and  we  can  safely  recommend  it  I 
petent  to  fill  a  long  felt  vacancy  in  the  mechanics'  library.     The  work  present',  a  valu- 
able collection  of  rules  and  data  connected  with  the  framing  square,  to  the  *•! 
roofing  problems,  br.,ces,  hoppers,  etc.,ac."—OriMa  Packet,  Ont. 


"  Some  fifty  engravings  aid  in  the  description  of  the  square  and  its  uses  in  obtaining 
lengths  and  bevels  of  all  kinds;  also,  its  application  in  obtaining  the  beveta  and  cut* 
for  all  conceivable  shapes  used  in  the  wood  shops.  Any  wood-worker  poMewnr  thw 
book  will  find  its  cost,  seventy-five  cents,  is  not  to  be  compared  with  us  real  vaL.  M.J 
usefulness  in  the  shop."—  The  Carriage  Monthly,  Fhila. 

"  The  work  is  a  very  valuable  one,  and  should  be  in  the  haods  of  every 
Messenger,  Collingtvood,  Ont. 

"The  work  will  be  of  very   great  service    to    carpenters  and  builders  "— 
Ont. 


PEACTICAL  CAEPENTEY. 

UKING  A  GUIDE  TO  THE 

Correct  Workins  and  Laying  Out  of  all  Wuds 
of  Carpenters'  and  Joiners'  M  ork. 


.  RaUing   Mouldings,  Circular 
Work,  Etc.,  Etc. 


" 


TO  WHICH  IS  PREFIXED  A  THOROUGH  TREATISE  ON 

CARPENTER'S    GEOMETRY." 

ILLUSTRATED    BY    OVER    3OO    ENGRAVINGS. 

By  FRED.  T.  HODGSON, 


Handsomely    Bound    in    Cloth,    F»rice    $1.OO. 

This  is  the  most  complete  book  of  the  kind  ever  published.  It  is 
Thorough  Practical  and  Reliable,  and  at  the  same  time  is  written 
in  a  style  so  plain  that  any  workman  or  apprentice  can  easily  un- 
derstand it  The  annexed  table  of  contents  will  give  a  better  idea 
of  its  scope  and  value  than  can  be  had  from  any  amount  of  notices 
or  descriptions  : 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 
PAET  I. 

GEOMETRY.— Straight  Lines.— Curved  Lines.— Solids.—  Compound  Linos. 
—Parallel  Lines-— Oblique  or  Converging  Lines.— Plane  Figures.— 
Angles.— Bight  Angles.— Acute  Angles.— Obtuse  Anglos.— Right- 
angled  Triangles.— Quadrilateral  Figures.— Parallelograms.—  Rect- 
angles.— Squares. — Rhomboids. —  Trapeziums.  — Trapezoids. — Diag- 
onals. —Polygons.—  Pentagons.  —Hexagons,  -r  Heptagons.  —  Octa- 
gons.— Circles.— Chords.— Tangents  —Sectors.— Quadrants.— A  res.— 
Concentric  and  Eccentric  Circles.— Altitudes.— Problems  I.  to  XXlA. 
—Drawing  of  Angles.— Construction  of  Geometrical  Figures.— Bisec- 
tion of  Lines.— Triseetion  of  Lines  and  Angles.— Division  of  Lines 
into  any  Number  of  Parts. — Construction  of  Triangles,  Squares  and 
Parallelograms. — Construction  of  Proportionate  Squares. — Con- 
struction of  Polygons.— Areas  of  Polygons.— \reas  of  Concentric 
Rings  and  Circles.— Segments  of  Circles.— The  use  of  Ordinates 
for  Obtaining  Arcs  of  Circles.— Drawing  !tn  Ellipse  with  a  Trammel. 
— Drawing  an  Ellipse  hy  means  of  a  Sr ring.— Same  by  Ordinates.— 
Baking  Ellipses.—Ovals.— Sixty-two  Illustrations. 


TAUT  II. 

ABCttES,  CEXT&ES  -Window  and  Door  Heads.-Somi -circular  Arch.- 
begmental  Arches. -Stilted  Areheti.— Horseshoe  An-h.-Lanoet  Arch. 
-Equilateral  Arch.-Oothic  Tracery.-Wheei-Wiudows.-Eauila- 
teral  Tracery.— Square  Tracery.— Finished  Leaf  Tracery.— Tweuty- 
two  Illustrations. 


PART  III. 

ROOFS.— Saddle  Roof.— Lean-to  or  Shed  Roof.— Simple  Hip-Roof.— 
Pyramidal  Roof.— Theoretical  Roof.— Roof  with  Straining  Beam.— 
Gothic  Roof.— Hammer-Beam  Roofs.— Curved  Principal  Roofs.— 
Roofs  with  Suspending  Rods.— Deck  Roofs.— King-post  and  Prin- 
cipal Roof.— Queen -post  and  Principal  Ro<  »f.— Roof  s  wit  h  Laminated 
Arches.— Strapped  Roof  Frames.— Tic-beam  Roofs.— Roofs  for  Long 
Spans.— Theatre  Roof.— Church  Roof.— Mansard  Roof.— Slopes  ol 
Roofs.— Rules  for  Determining  the  Sizes  of  Timbers  for  Roofs.— 
Acute  and  Obtuse  Angled  Hip-Roofs.— Development  of  Hip-Roofs.— 
Obtaining  Lengths  and  Bevels  of  Rafters.— Backing  Hip-Rafters.— 
Lengths.  Bevels  and  Cuts  of  Purlins.— Circular,  Conical  and  Seg- 
mental  Roofs.— Rafters  with  Variable  Curves.— Veranda  Rafters.— 
Development  of  all  kinds  of  Rafters.— Curved  Mansard  Rafters.— 
Framed  Mansard  Roofs.— Lines  and  Rules  for  obtaining  various 
kinds  of  Information.— Thirty-four  Illustrations. 


PART  IV. 

COVERING  OP  ROOFS.— Shingling  Common  Roofs.— Shingling  Hip- 
Roofs.-Method  of  Shingling  on  Hip  Corner.— Covering  Circular 
Roofs.--Covering  Ellipsoidal  Roofs.— Valley  Roofs.— Four  Illustra- 
tions. 

PART  V. 

THF  MTTERING  AND  ADJUSTING  op  MOULDINGS.— Mitering  of  Spring 
Mouldings.— Preparing  th«  Mitre-box  for  Cutting  Spring  Mould- 
Ings—  Riilos  for  Cutting  Mouldings,  with  Diagram*.— Mitre-boxes 
of  various  forms.— Lines  for  Spring  Mouldings  of  various  kinds.- 
Seven  Illustrations. 

PART  VI. 

«•—• -   AN-D   SKYLiGHTs.-Raised    Skylisrhts.-SkylighN   with  H!n«»- 
gon   Skylights  with  Spgrnontnl  Rib'* .-Angle-bars,  with 


yctagon  Hkyllgnts  witn  segmenrni  IHO^.—  anni^-«»M".  "••••  ••••• 

and  Dingrnms.  showinghowto  obtain  the  Anc  PS  Forms.  etc.-Sasn- 
Bars,  Hints  on  their  Construction.—  Twelve  Illustrations. 

PART  VIL 


MoULDIVGS.- 


-Enli 


Lines  for  Circular 


PART  VIII. 

IEKY.— Dovetailing.— Common  Dovetailing.— Lapped  Dovetailing.— 
31ind  Dovetailing.— Square  Dovetailing.— Splay  Dovetailing.— 
.tegular  and  Irregular  Dovetailing.— Lines  and  Cuts  for  Hoppers 
and  Splayed  Work.— Angles  and  Mitres  for  Splayed  Work.— Nineteen 
Illustrations. 

PART  IX. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PKOBLEMS.— Bent  Work  for  Splayed  Jambs.— Develop- 
ment of  Cylinders. — Rules  and  Diagrams  for  Taking  Dimensions.— 
Angular  and  Curved  Measurements.— Eight  Illustrations. 


PART  X. 

JOINTS  AND  STEAPS.— Mortise  and  Tenon  Joints.— Toggle  Joints.— Hook 
Joints.— Tongue  Joint.— Lap  Splice.—  Scarfing.— Wedge  Joints.— 
King-bolts.— Straps,  Iron  Ties,  Sockets,  Bearing-plates,  Rings 
Swivels  and  other  Iron  Fastenings.— Straining  Timbers,  Struts  and 
King-pieces.— Three  Plates,  Sixty-five  Illustrations. 

PART  XI. 

HINGING  AND  SWING  JOINTS.— Door  Hinging.— Centre-pin  Hinging.— 
Blind  Hinging.— Folding  Hinging.— Knuckle  Hinging.— Pew  Hing- 
ing.—Window  Hinging.— Half-turn  Hinge.— Full-turn  Hinge.— Back 
Flap  Hinging.— Rule-joint  Hinging.— Rebate  Hinging.— Three 
Plates,  Fifty-one  Illustrations. 


PART  XII. 

USEFUL  RULES  AND  TABLES  —Hints  on  the  Construction  of  Centres.— 
Rules  for  Estimating.— Form  of  Estimate.— Items  for  Estimating,  - 
Remarks  on  Fences.— Nails:  sizes,  weights,  lengths  and  numbers.— 
Cornices,  Proportions  and  Projections  for  Different  Styles  of  Archi- 
tecture: and  Tall  and  Low  Buildings,  Verandas,  Bay  Windows  and 
Porches.— Proportion  of  Base-boards,  Dados,  Wainscots  and  Sur- 
bqses.— Woods.  Hard  and  Soft,  their  Preparation,  and  how  to 


nish.—  Strength  and  Resistance  of  Timber  of  various  kinds.— 
los,  showing  Weight  and  other  qualities  of  Wood  and  Timber.  — 
.iirs.  Width  of  Treads  and  Risers;  their  Cost;  how  to  Estimate  on 


. 

them,  etc,—  Inclinations  of  Roofs.—  Contents  of  Boxes,  Bins  and 
Barrels.  —  Arithmetical  Signs.  —  Mensuration  of  Superficies.  —  Areas 
of  Squares  Tri.-mglps,  Circles,  Regular  and  Irregular  Polygons.— 
Properties  of  Circles.—  Solid  Bodies.—  Gunter's  Chain.—  Drawing 
and  Drawing  Instruments.  —  Coloring  Drawings.  —  Coloring  for 
Various  Building  Materials.—  Drawing  Papei-s.—  Sizes  of  Drawing 
Papers.—  Table  of  Board  Measure.—  Nautical  Table.—  Measure  of 
Time.—  Authorized  Metric  System.—  Measures  of  Length.—  Mea- 
sures of  Surfaces.—  Measures  of  Cnpaeity.—  Weights.—  American 
Weights  and  Measures.—  Square  Measurp.—  Cubic  Measure.—  Cir- 
cular Measure.-Decimal  Approximations.  -Form  of  Building 


A    NEW    BOOK 

FOB 

CABINET  MAKERS,  UPHOLSTERERS,  FlIfMTl  HE  MEN,  AMA- 
TEUR  WOOD  FINISHERS,  ETC,,  ETC, 


HINTS 

AND 

Practical   Information 

FOR 

CABINET-MAKEES,   UPHOLSTERERS,  AND 
FURNITURE  MEN  GENERALLY. 

TOGETHER    WITH 

A  DESCRIPTION    OF   ALL   KINDS   OF   FINISHING,   WITH 
FULL      DIRECTIONS      THEREFOR— VARNISHES— POL- 
ISHES-STAINS   FOR    WOOD— DYES   FOR  WOOD- 
GILDING     AND     .SILVERING— RECEIPTS     FOR 
THE  FACTORY— LACQUERS,  METALS,  MAR- 
BLES, ETC.— PICTURES,  ENGRAVINGS, 
ETC.— MISCELLANEOUS. 


This  work  contains  an  Immense  Amount  of  the  most  Useful 
Information  for  those  who  are  engaged  m  Manufacture,  Superin- 
tendence, or  Construction  of  Furniture  or  Wood  Work  of  any 
Kind.  It  is  one  of  the  Cheapest  and  Best  Books  EV.T  Publish.  .  I. 
and  contains 

Over  1,000  Hints,  Suggestions,  Methods, 


And    Inscription*    of   Tool*, 

nnd  ^l:i  i.  i  i;i  u. 


All  the  Recipes,  Rules  and    Directions  liav.-   IMTII  rjirrfnlh   K. 
vised  and  Corrected  by  I'ra.-tiral  Mm  of  Rn-at  rxp«-n.-ii.T.  so  that 
they  will  !»«•  found  thoroughly  trustworthy. 

Priw,  Koiiinl  in  Cloth,  with  Sid.'  Title  in  fiolil.  #1.00. 
SENT  TO  ANY  AI>I«KI>-  «>\ 


SAWS. 

THEIR  USE,  CARE  AND  ABUSE. 
HOW  TO  SELECT,  AND  HOW  TO  FILE  THEM. 

Being  a  Complete  Guide  for  Selecting,  Using  and  Filing  all  kinds  of  Hand- 
Saws,   Back-saws,  Compass  and  Key-hole  Saws,  Web,    Hack  and 
Butcher's  Saws  ;   showing  the  Shapes,  Forms,  Angles,  Pitches 
and  Sizes  of  Saw-Teeth  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  Saws,  and  for 
all  kinds  of  Wood,  Bone,  Ivory  and  Metal ;  together  with 
Hints  and  Suggestions  on  the  Choice  of  Files,  Saw- 
Sets,  Filing  Clamps,  and  other  Matters  pertain- 
ing to  the    Care  and    Management  of  all 

Classes  of  Hand  and  other  Small  Saws. 

ipie  work  is   intended   more   particularly  for  Operative   Carpenters, 

Joiners,  Cabinet-Makers,  Carriage  Builders,  and  Wood- Workers 

Generally,  Amateurs  or  Professionals. 

ILLUSTRATED  B\   OVER  SEVENTY-FIVE  ENGRAVINGS. 

By  FRED.  T.  HODGSON, 

AUTHOR  OF  "  THE  STEEL  SQUARE  AND  ITS  USES."  "  THE  BUILDER'S  GUIDE  A»TD 
ESTIMATOR'S  PRICK  BOOK,"  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY,"  ETC.,  ETC. 

Price -  01.00. 

TABLE     OF1    CONTENTS. 

PAET  I. 

History  of  the  Saw.— Saws  of  the  'J reeks. —Invention  of  the  First  Saws.— 
Eygptian  Bronze  Saws  in  the  British  Museum.— Antiquity  of  Saws.-- 
Mention  of  Saws  in  Holy  Writ.— Saws  of  the  Stone  Age.— Saws  of  the 
Bouth-sea  Islanders. — Saws  for  Cutting  Stone. — Japanese  Saws.— Dif- 
ferent Varieties  of  Saws.— Manner  of  Using  Saws  by  the  Ancients.— 
Assyrian  Saws.— Invention  of  Circular  and  Band-Saws.— First  Circular- 
Saws  in  America. 

PAET  II. 

Philosopny  01  the  Cutting  Qualities  of  Saw-Teeth.— The  "  Why  and  Where- 
•  fore"  of  the  Cutting  Pitch  and  Angles  of  Kip-Saw  Teeth.— The  Round 
Gullet-Tooth.— Chisel-Teeth  and  their  Action  on  the  Wood.— On 
the  Various  Angles  Required  for  Cutting  Hard  and  Soft  Woods,  with 
Explanations  of  Space,  Pitch,  Gullet,  Gauge,  Set.  Rake  and  Points.— 
Names  of  Saws,  with  Dimensions.  Form  of  Teeth,  Descriptions  and 
Explanations.— How  to  Choose  a  Saw ;  with  Hints  as  to  Form,  Quality, 
Make  and  "  Hang "  of  a  Saw.  with  Remarks  Concerning  Different 
Makers — Sash-Saws.  Dovetail-Saws,  Rip-Saws,  Panel-Saws,  Cross-cut 
Saws,  Bow-Saws,  Web-Saws,  Key-hole  Saws,  Compass-Saws  and  Tenon- 
Saws. 

PART  III. 

!Iow  to  Use  Hand-Saws.— How  to  Saw  Well  and  Easily.— Hints  for  Sawing 
Straight.— Rules  for  New  Beginners.— French,  German  and  American 
Workmen.— Saws  Filed  to  Work  on  the  Pull-Stroke  —Changeable 
Key-hole  Saws.— Use  of  Back-Saws.— Use  of  Web-Saws.— Care  of 
Buck-Saws._The  Buck-Saw;  the  Terror  of  Boyhood,  and  Whv.— The 
Butcher's-Saw.  the  Hack-Saw,  and  the  Surgeo'n's-Saw  with  Descrip- 
tion of  Each,  and  Hints  a^  to  their  Management, 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  (Continued). 

PART  IV. 

Filing  and  Setting  Hand-Saws.— The  Qualities  Required  to  make  a  GOOQ 
Filer.— Rules  in  some  Old-lime  Joiner  Shops.-  Can-less  Filine  and  ite 
Consequences.— Clamping  Saws  for  Filing— The  Line  of  Teeth— 
Angular  Groove  on  Cutting  Edge  of  Saw.— Filing  Backs  of  Teeth— 
Jointing  the  Sides  of  Teeth.— Shape  of  Teeth  for  Cross-cutting  Hard 
Wood.  Medium  and  Soft  Wood.— Cutting. Angles  Required  for  Various 
Degrees  of  Hardness  in  Woods.— Angle  to  Hold  the  File.— The  True 
Theory  of  Saw-Filing.— Buckling  and  "Twisting  Saws;  How  Done  and 
How  Avoided.— "  Hook  and  Pitch."— Careless  Use  of  Saws,  and  the 

Injuries  Done  to  them  in  Consequence The  Filing  of  PinVivnt  Saws, 

and  why  One  Class  of  Saws  Require  Different  Treatment  from  Another. 
The  Saw  that  Scrapes,  and  the  Saw  that  Cuts ;  the  "  Why  "  ot  tlii.-  in- 
ference.—Why  Some  Men  do  Much  More  Work  than  Others,  and  with 
Greater  Ease,  when  Sawing. 

PART  V. 

Miscellaneous  Saws  ;  their  Uses,  How  to  Care  for  Them,  and  How  to  Use 
Them.— The  M  Tooth,  Teeth  that  Cut  Both  Ways,  Crenate  Teeth, 
Brier  Teeth,  Gullet  Teeth,  Parrot-bill  Teeth.  Hog  Teeth,  the  Lancet 
and  other  Fancy  Forms  of  Teeth,  Described  and  Explained.— The  Old- 
style  u  Peg  Tooth,"  for  Two-handed  Cross-cut  Saws.— Various  Exam- 
ples of  the  u  Peg-Tooth  Saw.— Hack-Saws  ;  How  to  Use  and  How  to 
Keep  in  Order— Butcher's-Saws,  Surgeon's-Saws,  Saws  for  Cutting 
Combs,  Ivory,  Brass,  Gold,  and  Silver. -Circular-Saws  for  Cutting 
Metal,  Ivory,  Tortoise-shell,  and  other  Hard  Materials— Jig-Saws, 
Band-Saws  ;  their  Uses  and  How  to  Keep  them  in  Order— ScrolkSaws ; 
their  Uses  and  Care.— Progress  of  the  Band-Saw  ;  its  Future  ;  How  to 
Make  them  do  Clean  Work— Heating  Saws;  Rules  for  their  Manage- 
ment.—Why  Circular-Saws  Burst. 

PART  VI. 

Remarks  on  Saws,  Files.  Sets,  and  other  Appliances— Saw-Files;  what 
Constitutes  a  Good  One,  and  How  to  Select—Different  Qualities  of 
Saw-Files  and  How  to  Know  the  Various  Grades — Why  there  are 
Different  Grades—Hints  on  the  Use  of  Fllrs.-Cimilar-Saws  that  an- 

not  Circular.-How  to  Become  an  Expert  Sawyer,    s, I  ot  riivnlur- 

Saws;  Table  of  Same.  -Speed  of  Reciprocal  ing-Saws,  or  JIff-gft»£ 
Speed  of  Feed  for  Same—Working  Action  of  Ban.  -saws.-  How  Band- 
Saws  Became  Possible.-French  and  American  Band-saw  Blac « *— 
Inside  Sawing  with  Band-saws— Detachable  Band-Saws  A  ids  . 
Saw-Filing. -Saw-Clamps.  -Saw-Filer*  ***•&£,  Haml->.'ti:i 
with  Punch  and  Hammer.  Setting  will.  "Set-."  Mar  him.  Band-Saw 
Setters— Devices  for  Holding  Saws  wl.ile  b.-in-_'  x-t  and  Filed. 

PART  VII. 

Mill-Saws.— Saws  with  Few  Teeth. 


Plaster  and  Plastering. 
MORTARS    AND  CEMENTS. 

IIOU    TO  MAKE,  AND  HOW  TO  USE. 

BEING  A  COMPLETE  GUIDE  FOR  THE  PLASTERER  IN  THE  PREPARATION 
AND  APPLICATION  OF  ALL  KINDS  OF  PLASTER,  STUCCO,   PORTLAND 
CEMENT,  HYDRAULIC  CEMENTS,  LIME  OF  TIEL,  ROSENDALE  AND 
OTHER  CEMENTS,  WITH  USEFUL  AND  PRACTICAL  INFORMA- 
TION ON  THE  CHEMISTRY,  QUALITIES  AND  USES  OF  THE 
VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  LIMES  AND  CEMENTS.    TO- 
GETHER   WITH    RULES    FOR    MEASURING, 
COMPUTING,    AND   VALUING    PLASTER 
AND  STUCCO  WORK. 

TO  WHICH    IS  APPENDED 

AN  ILLUSTRATED  GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 

USED     IN     PLASTERING,     ETC. 

Besides  numerous  Engravings  in  the  text,  there  are  three  Plates,  giving  some 
forty  figures  of  Ceilings,  Centrepieces,  Cornices,  Panels  and  Soffits. 


By    FRED.  T.   HODGSON, 


frice 


$  1  .OO. 


INDEX. 


Description  of  Plates, 
Preface,    . 

1 

TOOLS  AND   MATERIALS. 

The  Hoe  or  Drag, 
The  Hawk,            .        .       .  '    . 

PAr.E 

.     10 
10 

The  Operator. 
The  Scratcher,  . 

Trowels,         

.    11 
11 

The  Hod, 
The  Sieve, 

Moulds,  .'.'.' 
Centre  Moulds, 
The  Pointer,  . 
The  Paddle,       .            ' 

.   11 
11 

.     12 
12 

Sand  Screens, 
Mortar-Beds.     . 
The  Slack  Box 
Lath,          .        .'.*." 

1,     12 
,     12 

Nail  Pocket, 

Out  off  Saw 

PA  OP, 

12 

IS 

13 
19 

14 
14 
14 
IS 
16 
15 


IN-DEX    (Continued). 


MATERIALS  EMPLOYED  IN  PLASTERING. 


Internal    Postering, 
Coarse  Siuir. 
Fine  Stuff,          . 
Putty, 

PACE 

.     16 

If, 

.     16 
16 

•    Hi 

K  '.JO 
17,  18 
17 
17 

Substitutes  for  Sand, 
Marble  Du>i. 
Hair,  .."•""• 
Colors.    . 
Whitewash 

FAG* 

.    23 
24 
.     24 
24 
24 

Stucco,       
Lime,      ...               .17. 
Plaster-of-  Paris, 
Laths,     .        .        .        .        .        . 
Cements 

Whiling.           . 

Baylor's  Portland  c.-ment, 

Mastic  for  Pluteriof, 
Stable  Floors. 
Concrete  for  foundations, 
Keene's  Cement,  . 

Metallic  Criurnt. 
Portland-Cement  siuceo,     . 
Lias  Cement,     .       .       .       . 
Rough  Cast,   .... 

External  Plastering. 
Scagliola  
Carton  Pierre,  .... 

25 
.     25 
25 
.     25 
25 
.     W 
27 
.     27 
28 
.    28 
29 

PAGE 

35-41 
41 
.    42 

Calcination, 

18 
18 

Quicklime, 

Slaking  
Air  Slaking  
Hydraulicity,         . 
Hydraulic  Limes,      . 
Sand, 

18 
.     19 
1!» 
.     20 
22 

PAGE 

.    30 
31 
.    32 
32 
.     34 
35 

>  OPERATIONS. 

General  Instructions, 
Float  ing  the  Work, 
Trowelling  and  Rendering, 
Running  Cornices, 
Ornamental  Cornices, 
Flowers  and  Cast  Work, 

Papier  Mache, 

42 

Stamped  Leather,    . 
Stearate  of  Lime, 

.    42 
.  42-43 

PLASTERER'S  MEASUREMENT. 

I'AGE 

Measuring  and  Valuation.  .  .  44 
Mensuration  of  Superfices,  .  .  44 
Taking  Dimensions,  .  .44 

Specifications.  ....  46 
Rendering  to  Walls,  ...  46 
Lath  and  Plaster  Work  to  Ceilings.  47 
Lath  and  Plaster  Work  to  Partitions,  47 
MISCELLANEOUS  MEMORANDA 

PAGE 

Hard  Hydraulic  Cement,         .       .    54 

Colored  Cements,         ...  54 

Brick-Dust  Cement,         ...  54 

Hardening  Plaster,  ...  54 
Mastic  Cement,  .  .  .  .54 

Cement  for  Outside  Brick  Walls.  55 

To  Mend  Plaster  Models,         .        .  55 

Cheap  Concrete  Flooring.    .        .  55 

To  Make  Moulds 55 

Artificial  Building  Stone,     .        .  56 

Artificial  Marble 56, 

Hard  Mortar 56 

Marble-Worker's  Cement,       .        .56 

Mason's  Cement 67 1 

Whitewash 57, 

I!. M|  \Vash  for  Brirks.    .        .        .  57 1 

To  Whiten  Internal  Walls.       .        .  57 

Concrete 58 

Papier  Mache 58 

Plaster  Ornaments,       ...  59 

Fibrous  Plaster 59 

Staining  Marble 59 

Marble.        .  .         .  59 

GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS.     A  to  Z, 


Measuring  Cornices, 
Measuring  Stucco, 
Coloring,    .... 
Summary,       .        .        .        . 

Pugging 

Whitewashing  and  Coloring, 


PAGE 

.    47 
48 

.  48 
48-50 
.  50 
51-53 


To  Take  Wax  Moulds  from  Plaster,  59 
Cement  for  Mouldings.     .        .        .60 

Cement  Floors  for  Cellars,   .        .  60 

Wash CO 

Coloring  in  Distemper,         .        .  61 

Mortar 61 

Caution, «1 

Concrete  Walls « 

External  Since 62 

Proportions  of  Materials,       .       .  6: 

I'ii//olana, 

Grout 63 

Weight*  of  Materials,    ...  64 

Items «• 

Cist.-nis 

Warkboard> '"'•'• 

MraMirinu'  l'hi-irivr'>  Work,        .  »•« 

N..t.-.- 6 

Mortars  and  <Viin-iit«,         .        .67 
Cuiicn-tf  HOIISI-S. 

stiviiL'th  of  I'itr.-rent  Mortars,     .  77  7s 
Form  of  Agreement,        .        .        78-81 


vf   10. 


IMPORTANT    ANNOUNCEMENT 

TO  ARCHITECTS,  CONTRACTORS  AND  BUILDERS. 

For  many  years  past  there  has  been  a  want  by  the  building  fraternity  of  a  good 
and  reliable  book  on  ESTIMATING,  one  that  will  give  prices  of  materials  and  labor 
for  every  department  of  building,  so  far  as  this  is  possible.  Such  a  book,  the  pub- 
lishers believe  has  at  last  been  produced,  and  is  now  offered  to  those  interested. 

THE  BUILDER'S  GUIDE, 

AND  ESTIMATOR'S  PRICE  BOOK. 

By   FRED.    T.   HODOSON. 

HANDSOMEST  BOUND  Iff  CLOTH,  GILT  TITLE.  PRICE,  -  $2.OO. 
Current  Prices  of  Lumber,  Hardware,  Glass,  Plumbers'  Supplies,  Paints, 
Slates,  Stones,  Limes,  Cements,  Bricks,  Tin  and  otber  Building  Materials; 
also,  Prices  of  Labor,  and  Cost  of  Performing  the  Several  Kinds  of  Work 
Required  in  Building.  Together  with  Prices  of  Doors,  Frames,  Sashes, 
Stairs,  Mouldings,  Newels,  and  other  3Iachine  Work.  To  which  is  appended 
a  large  number  of  Building  Rules,  Data,  Tables  and  Useful  Memoranda, 
with  a  Glossary  of  Architectural  and  Building  Terms. 

This  is  an  entirely  new  work,  and  gives  Prices  of  Labor  and  Materials  down 
to  a  recent  date,  and  is,  therefore,  the  most  reliable  book  in  the  market  on  the 
subject  of  prices  of  labor  and  materials  required  for  building.  The  work  con 
tains,  besides  Prices,  Data,  Eules,  and  Several  Hundred  Tables  and  Hints  on 
Building,  a  blank  column  where  the  prices  of  Labor  or  Material  may  be  written 
in  pencil,  where  such  prices  differ  from  those  given  in  the  book.  There  is  also 
a  very  complete  Glossary  of  Building  and  Architectural  Terms  appended  to  the 
work,  which  is  a  useful  and  valuable  addition  for  practical  builders. 

The  work  is  really  a  Cyclopaedia  of  Prices  and  Builder's  Tables,   Data  and 
Memoranda,  and  is  necessarily  a  large  work,  having  over  330  pages,  each  page 
beiug  74  x  4|,  and  covered  with  closely  printed  matter. 
In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  what  the  work  contains,  we  give  the  following  brief 

SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS: 

PART  I.— Contains  Hints  and  Rules  for  Correct  Estimating.— Forms  for  Taking 
Estimates,  Quantities,  Prices,  and  Manner  of  Computation.— General  Memoranda 
of  Items  for  Estimates.— Excavations.— Foundations.— Drains.— Iron  Work.— 
Baths  and  Water  Closets.— Brick  Walls.— Carpenter's  Work.— Joiner's  Work.— 
Mantels,  Grates,  Stove  Fittings,  etc.— Pantry,  Closets,  Kitchens  and  Appurten- 
ances.—Bell  Hanging,  Gas  Fixing  and  Fixtures.— Stairs  and  Staircases.— Roofs, 
Gutters  and  Conductors.— Porches,  Verandas  and  Fences.— Framing;  Cost  of 
same.— Cost  of  Painting,  Plastering,  Shingling,  Slating,  Tinning,  ^Finishing. 
Glazing,  Building  Chimneys,  and  other  Brick  Work.— Rules  for  Measuring  all 
kinds  of  Hip  and  other  Roofs,  with  Cost  of  same.— Rough  Boarding.  Shingling, 
Siding,  Laying  Floors,  and  other  Work.— Cost  of  Material  and  Labor  for  Stairs, 
Newels,  Balusters,  Rails,  Doors,  Mouldings.  Sliding  and  Folding  Doors,  Windows 
of  all  kinds,  Blinds,  Wainscoting.  Baseboards.  Kinials.  Cn-sting  Plumbing  Floor- 
ing, and  everything  else  used  about  a  Building. 

PART  II.— Contains  an  Extensive  Schedule  of  Builder's  Prices,  for  Digging, 
Shovelling,  Ramming  in  Loose  Earth,  Clay  and  Gravel.— Cost  of  Masonry 
Rubble,  Hammer-Dressed  Work,  Rough  Rock  Work,  Reveals,  Ashler  Work,  Bel 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONTENTS  (Continued). 

pairs.  Arches,  Plain  Work,  Rubbed  Work,  Beaded  Work,  Fluting,  Reeding, 
Throating,  Grooving,  Rebating,  Leading  in  Work,  Sunken  Work,  Mortising. 
etc.— Prices  of  ail  kinds  of  Native  Stones  per  Cubic  Foot,.— Prices  of  Cements; 
Portland,  Rosendale,  Keene's,  Lime  of  Tell,  Lime,  Lath,  Slate,  etc.— Bricklay- 
ing; Price  per  1,000,  Laborer's  Wages,  Prices  of  Bricks  of  Different  Grades,  Cir- 
cular and  Elliptical  Work,  Brick  Paving  of  all  kinds,  Laid  Dry  or  in  Mortar. 
Drain  Pipes,  Cost  and  Quality;  Terra-Cotta  Chimney  Tops.  Cresting,  Tiles  and 
Mouldings,  etc.— Colored  Bncks,  Tuck  Pointing.  Setting  in  Sash  and  Door 
Frames,  Taking  Down  Old  Work,  Rebuilding  with  Old  Brk-ks,  Firebricks,  Tile 
Work,  Quality  and  Prices  of  Bricks  from  Various  Localities,  Prices  of  Peerless 
Brick  Company's  Colored  Bricks,  Colored  Mortars  and  Cements,  Odd-Shaped 
Bricks.— Plasterers  Work,  Scaffolding,  Lathing,  Mortars  for  all  kinds  of  Work, 
Cements  for  Walls  and  Ceilings,  Cornices  and  Stucco  Work,  Plaster-of-Paris 
Flower  and  Ornamental  Work,  Kalsomining  and  Washes  of  all  Kinds.— Carpen- 
ter's and  Joiner's  Work  ;  Wages,  Prices  of  Lumber,  Prices  of  Made-up  Stuff  of  all 
Kinds.— Hard-wood  Work,  Nails,  Screws.  Locks,  Butts  and  other  Hardware.— 
Stairs  of  all  Kinds,  Table  for  Finding  the  Run  and  Rise  of  Treads  and  Risers, 
Turned  Work  for  Stairs  and  other  Work.— Painting,  Colors,  Prices  for  Different 
Kinds  of  Work,  Ladders,  Scaffolding,  Tools,  Graining,  Painting  Iron  Work, 
Staining,  Repairing  Old  Work.  Numerical  Work,  Varnishing,  Lettering,  Oiling, 
Sash  and  Door  Painting,  Mixing  Colors,  Prices  of  Colors,  Miscellaneous  Re- 
marks.—Roofing  Materials  of  all  Kinds,  with  Prices  and  Cost  of  Laying  ;  Bell- 
Hanging  Materials,  Skylights,  Tubs,  Sinks,  Sheet  Iron,  Pumps,  Tanks,  Registers, 
Ventilators,  Wire  Ropes,  and  other  matters  required  in  Building. 

PART  III.— Contains  Rules  for  Builder's  Bookkeeping,  Form  of  Balance  Sheet, 
Rules  for  Measuring  Artificer's  Work,  including  Excavation,  Drains.  Shoring, 
Concreting,  and  Labor  in  General :  also  Methods  of  Measuring  all  Kinds  of  Ma- 
terials for  Brick,  Stone,  or  Wood  Work.— Elements  of  the  Mechanics  of  Archi- 
tecture, Strength  of  Materials,  Rules  for  Obtaining  Same  ;  Iron,  Wood,  Stone 
and  Brick,  Crushing  Loads  for  Various  Building  Materials,  Columns,  Iron,  Wood, 
Stone.— Tables  for  Computing  the  Strength  of  'Materials,  Factors  of  Safety, 
Rolled-Iron  Beams  and  Girders.— Bricks  and  Brick  Piers,  Terra-Cotta.  Strength 
and  Qualities  of  Cements  and  Mortars,  Fire-Brick,  Colored  Mortars,  Granite  and 
other  Stone. 

PART  IV.-Miscellaneous  Tables.-Weight  of  Iron,  Lead,  Brass,  Copper  and 
per  Foot  Superficial  or  in  Bars  ;  Strength  of  Round  Ropes,  Weight  of 


l 
Trusses,  Specific  Gravities. 

PART  V._Mensuration  of  Superflces,  Areas  of  Squares.  Cube* 
Multi  sided   Fiirure^    etc-    Measurements  ot    Solids,  (uhes.  (ones, 
S^^fs^rS^A  Cubes  of  Number,    Tabl,  ,,f  Spl-en^l  C.mtents, 
Diameters,  Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles    Board  and  1  la 
Scantling  Measure,  Wages  Table,  Sizes  and  Capacities  of  Cribs,  Boxes  and  Tanks. 

Building). 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

A   Collection    of  Useful   and    Reliable    Recipes, 

Rules,    Processes,    Methods,    Wrinkles, 

ami    Practical    Hints, 

FOR  THE   HOUSEHOLD  .*JTD    THE  SHOJP. 


CONTENTS- 

Abyssinian  Gold'— Accidents,  General  Rules;— Alabaster,  how  to  work,  polish  and 
clean;— Alcohol;— Alloys,  rules  for  making,  and  26  recipes ;— Amber,  how  to  work 
polish  and  mend;-Annealing  and  Hardening  glass,  copper  steel,  etc.  ;-Arsenical 
Soap-— Arsenical  Powder ;— Beeswax,  how  to  bleach;— Blackboards,  how  to  make  ;— 
Brass  how  to  work,  polish,  color,  varnish,  whiten,  deposit  by  electricity,  clean,  etc., 
etc  •  -Brazing  and  Soldering;— Bronzing  brass,  wood,  leather,  etc.  ;— Burns,  how  to 
cure;— Case-hardening;— Catgut,  how  prepared ;— Cements,  general  rules  for  using,  and 
56  recipes  for  preparing ;— Copper,  working,  welding,  depositing  ;— Coral,  artificial;— 
Cork,  working;— Crayons  for  Blackboards ;— Curling  brass,  iron,  etc.  ;— Liquid  Cu- 
ticle •  —Etching  copper,  steel,  glass ; — Eye,  accidents  to ; — Fires,  to  prevent ; — Clothes  on 
Fire '—Fireproof  Dresses;— Fly  Papers;— Freezing  Mixtures,  6  recipes  ;— Fumigating 
Pastils; — Gilding  metal,  leather,  wood,  etc.; — Glass,  cutting,  drilling,  turning  in  the 
lathe,  fitting  stoppers,  removing  tight  stoppers,  powdering,  packing,  imitating  ground 
glass,  washing  glass  vessels,  etc.  ; — Grass,  Dry,  to  stain  ; — Guns,  to  make  shoot  close, 
to  keep  from  rusting,  to  brown  the  barrels  of,  etc.,  etc.; — Handles,  to  fasten ;— Inks, 
rules  for  selecting  and  preserving,  and  34  recipes  for; — Ink  Eraser; — Inlaying; — Iron, 
forging  welding,  case-hardening,  zincing,  tinning,  do.  in  the  cold,  brightening,  etc., 
etc  ;— Ivory,  to  work,  polish,  bleach,  etc.  ;— Javelle  Water  ;_Jewelry  and  Gilded  Ware, 
care  of,  cleaning,  coloring,  etc. ;— Lacquer,  how  to  make  and  apply :—  Laundry  Gloss;— 
Skeleton  Leaves; — Lights,  signal  and  colored,  also  for  tableaux,  photography,  etc.,  25 
recipes;— Lubricators,  selection  of,  -»  recipes  for ;  —Marble,  working,  polishing,  clean- 
ing;— Metals,  polishing  ; — Mirrors,  care  of,  to  make,  pure  silver,  etc.,  etc.; — Nickel, 
to  plate  with  without  a  battery; — Noise,  prevention  of; — Painting  Bright  Metals; — 
Paper,  adhesive,  barometer,  glass,  tracing,  transfer,  waxed,  etc.; — Paper,  to  clean,  take 
creases  out  of,  remove  water  stains,  mount  drawing  paper,  to  prepare  for  varnishing, 
etc,  etc.;— Patina;— Patterns,  to  trace;— Pencils,  inde'ible;— Pencil  Marks,  to  fix;— 
Pewter;— Pillows  for  Sick  Room,  cheap  and  good  i-.-Pla-^ev-of- Paris,  how  to  work;— 
Poisons,  antidotes  for,  12  recipes; — Polishing  Powders,  preparation  and  use  of  (six 
pages); — Resins,  their  properties,  etc.; — Saws,  how  to  sharpen; — Sieves; — Shellac, 
properties  and  uses  of;— Silver,  properties  of,  oxidized,  old,  cleaning,  to  remove  ink 
stains  from,  to  dissolve  from  plated  goods,  etc.,  etc. ; — Silvering  metals,  leather,  iron, 
etc.  ; — Size,  preparation  of  various  kinds  of; — Skins,  tanning  and  curing,  do  with  hair 
on; — Stains,  to  remove  from  all  kinds  of  goods; — Steel,  tempering  and  working  (six 
pages); — Tin,  properties,  methods  of  working; — Varnish,  21  recipes  for; — Varnishing, 
directions  for; — Voltaic  Batteries; — Watch,  care  of; — Waterproofing,  7  recipes  for; — 
Whitewash;— Wood  Floors,  waxing,  staining,  and  polishing ;— Wood,  polishing;— 
Wood,  staining,  17  recipes; — Zinc,  to  pulverize,  black  varnish  for. 

164  closely-printed  pages,  neatly  bound.     Sent  bv  mail  for  36  cents 
(postage  stamps  received). 


A    JV#*F    SERIES    OF   PRACTICAL    ROOKS. 

WORK  MANUALS. 

The  intention  of  the  publishers  is  to  give  in  this  Series  a  number  of  small  books  which 
will  give  Thorough  and  Reliable  Information  in  the  plainest  possible  language,  upon  the 
OF1    EVEJRY13AY    LIFE. 


Each  volume  will  be  by  some  one  who  is  not  only  practically  familiar  with  his  subject, 
but  who  has  the  ability  to  make  it  clear  to  others.  The  volumes  will  each  contain  from 
50  to  75  pages  ,  will  be  neatly  and  clearly  pnnted  on  good  paper  and  bound  in  tough 
and  durable  binding.  The  price  will  be  US  cent*  each,  irr  five  for  One  Dollar. 

The  following  are  the  tides  of  the  volumes  already  issued.  Others  will  follow  at 
short  intervals. 

I.  Cements  and  Glue. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Preparation  and  Use  of  All  Kinds  of  Cements,  Glue 
and  Paste.     By  JOHN    PHIN,  Editor  of  the   Young  Scientist  and  the  A  mtrica*. 
Journal  of  Microscopy 
Every  mechanic  and  householder  will  find  this  volume  of  almost  everyday  use.     It 

contains  nearly  200  recipes  for  the  preparation  of  Cements  for  almost  every  conceivable 

purpose. 

II.  The  Slide  Rule,  and  How  to  Use  It. 

This  is  a  compilation  of  Explanations,  Rules  and  Instructions  suitable  for  mechanics 
and  others  interested  in  the  industrial  arts.  Rules  are  given  for  the  measurement  of 
all  kinds  of  boards  and  planks,  timber  it  the  round  or  square,  glaziers'  work  and  paint- 
ing, brickwork,  pavjors'  work,  tiling  and  slating,  the  measurement  of  vessels  of  various 
shapes,  the  wedge,  inclined  planes,  wheels  and  axles,  levers,  the  weighing  and  meas- 
urement of  metals  and  all  solid  bodies,  cylinders,  cones,  globes,  octagon  rules  and 
formulae,  the  measurement  of  circles,  and  a  comparison  of  French  and  English  measures, 
with  much  other  information,  useful  to  builders,  carpenters,  bricklayers,  glaziers, 
paviors,  slaters,  machinists  and  other  mechanics. 

Possessed  of  this  little  Book  and  a  good  Slide  Rule,  mechanics  might  carry  in  their 
pockets  some  hundreds  oi  times  the  power  of  calculation  that  they  now  have  in  their 
heads,  and  the  use  of  the  instrument  is  very  easily  acquired. 

III.  Hints  for  Painters,  Decorators  and  Paperhaiigers. 

Being  a  selection  of  Useful  Rules,  Data,  Memoranda,  Methods  and  Suggestions 
for  House,  Ship,  and  Furniture  Painting,  Paperhanging,  Gilding,  Color  Mixing, 
and  other  matters  Useful  and  Instructive  to  Painters  and  Decorators.  Prepared 
with  Special  Reference  to  the  Wants  of  Amateurs.  By  an  Old  Hand. 

IV.  Construction,  Use  and  Care  of  Drawing  Instrument*. 

Being  a  Treatise  on  Draughting  Instruments,  with  Rules  for  their  Use  and  Care, 
Explanations  of  Scale-,,  Sectors  and  Protractors.  Together  with  Memoranda  for 
Draughtsmen,  Hints  on  Purchasing  Paper,  Ink,  Instruments,  Pencils  etc.  Also  a 
Price  List  of  all  materials  requiredty  Draughtsmen.  Illustrated  with  twenty-four 
Explanatory  Illustrations.  By  FRED.  T.  HODGSON. 

V.  The  Steel  Square. 

Some  Difficult  Problems  in  Carpentry  and  Joinery  Simplified  and  Solved  by  the 
aid  of  the  Carpenters'  Steel  Square,  together  with  a  Full  1  escnpuon  of  the  lool 
and  Explanations  of  the  Scales,  Lines  and  Figures  on  the  Blade  and  Tongue  and 
How  to  Use  them  in  Everyday  Work  Showing  how  the  Square  may  be  Used 
^^S^eleitte^L^toaV  Rafters,  1  Hips,  Groins,  .Braces,  Brackets. 
PurUns,  Collar-  Beam?,  ami  Jack-Raftc.s,  Also.  ,ts  App  licaiiu  .....  *»**™"* 
the  Bevels  and  Cuts  for  Hoppers,  Sp.mg  Mouldings  Octagons,  Diminished 
Styles,  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  by  Numerous  Wood-cuts.  By  FKKU.  1.  Huuoso*. 
Author  of  the  "Carpenters'  Steel  Square." 

JV«fe-This  work  is  intended  as  an  elementary  introduction  for  *»«•••<*«•  wn<l 
have  not  time  to  study  Mr.  Hodgson's  larger  work  on  the  same  subject. 


POCKET  MANUAL  NUMBER  ONE ;  OR,  THE 

Writers'  and  Travellers'  Ready  Reference  Book 

IT-OR    EVERY    U>AY    USE. 
Rev.    JOHN  HI.   HERON,  A.  M.,  Editor. 

CONTEXTS. 

1   Title  Page.  I  !*•  A  Table  showing  distance  of  the 

a!  Dedication  and  Copyright.  principal  American  Cities  froiv 

3.  Editor's  Preface.  New    York,    the    difference     i 


3.  Editor's  Preface. 

4.  Contents. 

5.  Over  20,000  Synonymous  Words. 

6.  Foreign   Words    and    Phrases    in 

general  use. 

7.  Domestic    and    Foreign    Postage 

Rates    and    Laws    and    Stamp 
Duties. 

8.  Value  Foreign  Coins  as  per  author- 

ized standard  U.  S.  Mint. 

9.  Use  of  Capital  Letters. 

10.  Rules  for  Punctuation. 

11.  Abbreviations  and  their  use. 


12.  A  Perpetual  Calendar.  16.  Our  Deportment. 

An  Int 


13.  An  Interest  Table. 


in 

Time,   and  the  present  Popula- 
tion of  Each. 
15.  Our  Country  and  Government;  the 
Area  of  the  U.  S.(  how  acquired; 


acqui 
nd  Te 


Population  of  States  and  Terri- 
tories, Number  of  Electoral  Votes 
eh  is  entitled  to,  Represents- 


The 


tives,  etc.;  The  Executive  and 
Judicial  Branches  of  the  Govern- 
ment, duties  of  officials,  their 
salaries ;  American  Progress, 
etc.,  etc. 


. 
17.  A  Complete  Index. 


Thousands  of  people  have  long  felt  the  need  of  such  a  work  as  this.  The 
correspondent,  student,  literary  worker,  or  any  person  who  has  any  writing  to 
do,  is  constantly  annoyed  to  think  of  just  the  right  words  to  use  in  order  to 
convey  the  idea  intended  and  make  a  smooth  and  finished  sentence.  The 
Writers'  and  Travellers'  Ready  Reference  Book  contains  20,000  synonymous 
words,  alphabetically  arranged',  and  this  feature  of  it  not  only  supplies  this  often 
much  needed  word,  but  it  at  the  same  time  EDUCATES  the  searcher  and  enables 
him  to  express  himself  verbally  with  grace  and  ease.  To  the  writer  this  list  of 
Synonymous  Words  is  second  only  to  the  Spelling  Book.  The  use  of  Capitals, 
rules  for  Punctuation  and  use  of  Abbreviations  are  all-important,  and  frequently 
a  lack  of  their  observance  or  an  ignorance  of  their  proper  use  turns  what  "  might 
have  been"  a  successful  life  into  another  channel  because  such  things  as  these 
caused  some  person  to  reject  the  application  which  otherwise  would  have  been 
the  successful  turning  point  in  the  career  of  the  writer.  We  cannot  always 
carry  a  Spelling  Book  or  Dictionary  with  us,  and  nowhere  is  information  on 
these  points  so  concisely  given  and  "so  handy  for  reference  as  in  the  Writers' 
and  Travellers'  Ready  Reference  Book.  We  often  spend  considerable  time 
and  go  to  lots  of  trouble  to  ascertain  something  about  Postage  Rates.  There 
are  but  few  of  us  who  do  not  need  a  list  to  give  us  the  meaning  of  Foreign 
Words  and  Phrases  which  we  constantly  come  across  in  reading.  A  Calendar, 
Interest  Table,  and  table  showing  the  value  of  Foreign  Coins,  are  all  eminently 
practical  and  useful.  All  these  this  little  book  contains.  The  one  table  showing 
at  a  glance  the  population  of  the  principal  American  cities,  the  distance  of  each 
from  New  York  City,  and  the  difference  in  time,  is  a  marvel  of  condensation. 
and  is  worth  more  than  the  price  of  the  book  to  any  traveller.  Under  the 
head  of  "Our  Country  and  Government"  is  given  the  pith  of  a  large  volume, 
JUST  SUCH  facts  as  every  American  ought  to  possess,  and  they  can  be  obtained 
nowhere  else  for  less  than/owr  times  the  money. 

Good  manners  and  an  observance  of  a  few  simple  Rules  of  Etiquette  often  do 
more  towards  winning  friends  and  making  one  happy,  than  wealth,  or  the  most 
classic  education.  They  always  go  further  than  either  or  both  towards  making 
a  gentleman  or  lady.  Such  Gems  of  Deportment  as  are  of  value  to  all,  will  be 
found  in  the  "  Pocket  Manual." 


5  ™uw°>>ld  perfect  and  educate  yourself  in  these  matters,  by  all  means, 
P  YOU  would  save  yourself  from  many  annovances  and  much  loss 
of  time  and  money,  GET  IT.  IP  YOU  would  make  an  inexpensive,  appropriate 
and  useful  present  to  any  person,  GET  IT. 

The  Pocket  Manual  is  printed  from  new  and  perfect  plates,  on  fine  tinted  paper, 

C°Ver8'  with  Ink  and  G°ld 


THE 

POCKET       MANUAL 


NUJMBKR,    TWO, 

OB,  A 


KKY  TO  A  PROFITABLE  OCCUPATION  FOR  ANY   PKKNUX, 
REV.  JOHN  M.  HERON,  A.M.,  EDITOR. 

TWENTY-FIVE  DOLLARS  WORTH  OF  INFORMATION  IN  THE  POCKET. 


How  to  Become  a  Short- Hand 
Writer,  or  complete  and  practical 
instruction  in  Phonography,  by 
CURTIS  HAVEN.  Pres't  Pliila.  College 
of  Phonography,  etc. 

How  to  Become  a  Proof-reader,  by 
JOSEPH  JOHNSON,  experienced  proof- 
reader. 

1 1  ii  w  to  Become  a  Telegraph  Opera- 
tor, by  J.  W.  CHOUSE,  Ex  Supt.  Pa. 
R.  R.  Wires.  Eastern  Division. 

How  to  Use  a  Type- Writer,  or  simple 
instructions  for  operating  with  a 
Writing  Machine.  By  J.  W.  EARLE. 
Phila.  Manager  Remington  Type- 
writer Co. 

How  to  Get  a  Farm  from  U.  S.  By 
ARTHUR  BRADLEY,  Attorney. 

How  to  Manufacture  Super-phos- 
phate of  Lime  and  Guano.  i;>,  M 
FRANZ.  Scientist. 

How  to  Raise  Poultry  or  Poultry  and 
Kggs  as  a  Business.  Ry  M.  H.  PEN- 
DLSTON,  editor  "Poultry  Messen- 
ger." 

How  to  Become  a  Dressmaker.  I '  < 
directions  for  learningtodo  finished 
work  for  one's  self  or  as  a  business, 
by  Mrss  ISABEL  CRAWFORD,  Practical 
Dressmaker. 

How  to  Draw  and  Paint  Flowers,  etc., 

Srom  nature  or  otherwise.     By  PROF. 
OHN  COLLINS.  Artist. 

EVERY  ARTICLE,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  of  the  |es*  importan' 
is  ORIGINAL,  and  has  been  prepared  with  the  UTMOST  CARE  bv  a  per* (par- 
ticular experience,   reputation  and  ability  for  the  subject.    »»   mutch   priMMM 

matter  ami  xo  able  a  corps  of  irrHivn  //vis  nrrer  before  presented  in  a  book  of 

the  size  aii'l  ]>r'u-f. 
ILLUSTRATIONS.     Several   articles   have   IH-II   illustrated   at  a  hcav 


The  Subscription  Book  i',u,i ,,,--.,.  Its 

/"flnei tirowth.  Desirability,  et,-.. 

by  W.  H.THOMPSON.  Publish,. r 

How  to  Become  a  Book-keeper  mid 
Practical  Instructions  lor  H.M.k- 
keepers.  By  THOMA.S  MAY  I'IIK.  i. 

M.A.,  Of  the  Peiree  College  ..I  Hil-l- 
negS,  J'hila. 

How  to  Make  out  Reports  and  Audit 
Acc'ts  of  Building  AMoclatlonn, 
what  Building  Associations  are  and 
how  conducted.  By  THOMAS  GAJTF- 
NEY.  Practical  AocoUDtaot  and 
Building  Association  Expert. 

Directions  for  Silk  Culture,  with  in- 
struction-- for  raiding  Worms,  spjn- 

ning  Coei s,  etc.,  liv  Mus.  M.  E. 

CUNNINGHAM,  asfti&tod  by  the  silk 
Culture  Association. 

Collecting  Old  Coins.  Tables  of  dif- 
ferent coins  with  market  price*  etc 
By  G.  L.  FANCHER.  NnmiBmatlst 

Stamps  Collecting,  and  How  to  Bay 
and  Sell  stump*.  ]{\  L.  \\.  I  n  IUH.N 
PhilateliM  ami  Stam'p  Dealer. 

How  to  Make  Soap.  By  FRAKK  P. 
HARMED,  Chemist  of  the  Penti 
Chemic.il  Work-. 

Ambition,  Eiiterprlne  and  Iiiteip-ity. 
I-.N  Rev.  JOHX  M.  HI:I:..\-.  \.M 

Table  of  Wages  by  the  Month.  Fi ,  ,m 
the  American  Home  and  Farm  C>- 


. 

pense.  The  lessons  in  short  hand  were  produced  by  photo-.  -ngrax  ing  from 
pen  dratoingi  ir>  TIMES  the  size.  There  are  -..im-  'jr,  ,,r  these,  prof.  Collln*1 
'  lattilu  and  branlifnllv  Illustrated. 


e  -.-vei  .(| 


d  Attorney  Bradley's   articles   are 

The  skill  of  the  engraver  has  been  iv.jiiiivd  in  rendering 
other  features. 

The  Pocket  Manual   is  printed  on  the  rf/(»-s/  rose  tint    pnper   made 
for  it.  from    new  and  perfect   plate-.  »•/'///  n  /•///(  •  ai-imml  fdc/,  pui/f.  <-.>ntaiiiH  334 


Price,  Bound  in  Finest  English  doth,  Bed  Edges.  Gold  Side  Stamp,  60 


THE    BEE-KEEPERS'    GUIDE; 

OR, 


By     A..     J.      COOK.,     Lansing.      Michigan, 

PROF.  OF  ENTOMOLOGY  IN  THE  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE. 

0000    SOXjX)    I3XT    SI3SL    YIE 
350   PAGES.       192    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

This  is  a  new  edition  of  Prof.  Cook's  Manual  of  the  Apiary,  enlarged  and  ele- 
gantly illustrated.  The  first  edition  of  3,000  copies  was  exhausted  in  about  18 
months—  a  sale  unprecedented  in  the  annals  of  bee-culture. 

The  tenth  1,000  has  been  thoroughly  revised,  much  new  matter  and  in  any 
costly  illustrations  added,  and  has  been  produced  with  grea"  care,  patient  study, 
and  persistent  research.  It  comprises  a  full  delineation  of  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  honeybee,  illustrated  with  many  expensive  wood  engravings; 
the  products  of  the  Honey  Bee  ;  the  races  of  bees  ;  full  description  of  honey- 
producing  plants,  trees,  shrubs,  etc.,  splendidly  illustrated  ;  and  last,  though  not 
least,  detailed  instructions  for  the  various  manipulations  necessary  in  the  apiary. 

Read  the  Following  Opinions  of  the  Book: 

1  feel  like  thanking  God  that  we  have  such  a  man  as  Prof.  Cook  to  take  hold 
of  the  subject  of  bee-culture  in  the  masterly  way  in  which  he  has  done  it.  — 
Gleanings  in  Bee  Cnlture. 

It  is  a  book  which  does  credit  to  our  calling  ;  one  that  every  bee-keeper  may 
welcome  as  a  fit  exponent  of  the  science  which  gives  pleasure  to  all  who  are 
engaged  in  it.—  American  Bee  Journal. 

It  is  just  what  might  have  been  expected  from  the  distinguished  author—  a 
work  acceptable  to  the  ordinary  bee-man,  and  a  delight  to  the  student  ot 
scientific  apiculture.—  Bee-Keepers'  Magazine. 

Cook's  new  "Manual  of  tlie  Apiary."  comes  with  high  ecomiums  from 
America,  and  certainly  it  appears  to  have  cut  the  ground  from  under  future 
book-makers  for  some  time  to  come.—  British  Bee  Journal. 

Prof.  A.  J.  Cook's  "Manual  of  the  Apiary"  contains,  besides  the  description 
of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  honey  bee.  beautifully  illustrated,  the  pro- 
ducts and  races  of  the  bees,  honey  plants—  the  instruction)  for  the  different 
operations  performed  in  the  hives'  All  agree  that  it  is  the  work  of  a  Musi  IT. 
and  is  of  real  value.  L'ApicHlteur,  Paris. 

I  have  read  with  a  great  deal  of  interest  the  copy  of  Cook's  Manual  you  sent 
me,  and  I  intend  to  publish  extracts  from  it  in  the  '"  Bulletin  "  of  the  Society  of 
Apiculture  of  the  Department  of  the  Somme,  so  that  our  apiarists  may  be  aware 
of  the  value  of  this  estimable  work.  It  is  a  credit  to  the  author  as  well  as  the 
publishers.  I  have  never  yet  met  with  a  work,  either  French  or  foreign,  which 
I  like  so  much.—  L'  Abbe  L.  DuBois,  at  La  Malmaison  Aisne.  France. 

Every  point  connected  with  the  subject  is  handled  in  a  clear,  exhaustive,  yet 
pithy  and  practical  manner.—  Rural  New  Yorker. 

The  most  thorough  work  on  the  apiary  ever  published,  and  the  only  one  illus- 
trating the  various  bee  plants.  -Lapsing  (Mich.)  Republican. 

Treating  the  art  in  all  ils  different  branches  in  a  clear,  concise  and  interesting 
manner.—  The  Canadian  Entomologist. 

It  is  the  fullest,  most  practical,  and  most  satisfactory  treatise  on  the  subject 


now  before  the  public.—  Country  Gentleman. 
Prof.  Cook's  valuable  Manual 


has  been  my  constant  guide  in  my  operations 
and  successful  management  of  the  Apiary.—  J.  P.  WKST. 

I  have  derived  more  practical  knowledge  from  Prof!  Cook's  New  Manual  of 
the  Apiary  than  from  any  other  book.—  E.  H.  WYXKOOP 

With  Cook's  Manual  I  am  more  than  pleased.    It  is  fully  up  with  the  times  in 
every  particular.    The  richest  reward  awaits  its  author  -A  E  WFN/.KI 
Price,  by  Mail,  J1.25.    Free  by  mail  on  receipt  of  price. 

INDUSTRIAL     PUBLICATION     CO., 

204  Broadway,  New   York. 


GENESIS   AND  GEOLOGY. 

The  only  really  scientific  and  logical  system  of  harmony  botweem 
Genesis  and  Geology  is  to  be  found  in  a  little  work,  just  published, 

MTHE  CHEMICAL  HISTORY 

The  Six  Days  of  Creation. 

BY    JOHN    PHIN,  C.  E., 

1  vol.,  12mo.,  cloth.    7S  ecnti. 

In  this  work  an  attempt  is  made  to  show  that  the  account  given  of  the 
Creation,  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  agrees  titeraUy  with  the  record 
developed  by  the  investigations  of  modern  science. 

May  be  ordered  through  any  bookseller.  Single  copies  sent  by  mail, 
on  receipt  of  price, 


The  following  are  a  few  of  the  Opimont  of  the  Prett: 

This  ia  a  small  book,  but  full  of  matter.  The  author  believes  in  the  book  of  Oenesi« 
as  the  'work  of  Moses,  and  believes  in  the  entire  correctness  of  the  statements  mad* 
by  Moses  .in  regard  to  the  work  of  creation.  He  defends  the  accuracy  of  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis,  and  defends  it  from  a  scientific  standpoint  We  think  this  book 
is  full  of  interest  and  value;  and  as  the  discussions  concerning  the  harmony  of  science 
and  "faith  are  rife  at  the  present  day,  we  commend  the  reasonings  of  Mr.  Pbin  to  the 
great  number  of  readers  and  students  who  are  investigating  these  subjects.—  Tkt 
Presbyterian  (Philadelphia). 

The  author  gives  a  new  solution  of  this  difficult  question,  and  certainly  present* 
many  very  plausible  arguments  in  support  of  his  theory.  —  Sunday-School  Workman. 

A  very  candid  and  ingenious  essay.  —  Christian  Union  (H.  W.  Beecher's  paper). 

It  is  a  topic  which  needs  a  calm  and  well-directed  intellect  to  approach,  and  Mr.  Phin 
has  surrounded  its  discussion  with  thoughts  of  the  deepest  interest  to  all  minds  seek- 
ing rest  on  this  much  perplexing  question.  —  Journal  of  the  TelegrapK. 

The  reasons  and  conclusions  are  clear,  distinct,  and  natural.  The  book  will  interest 
and  instruct,  and  is  intended  to  lead  the  reasoning  mind  to  firmer  faith  in  the  light  ol 
revelation.—  New  York  Globe. 

No  one  can  read  this  book  without  compensation,  without  becoming  more  thoughtful 
concerning  the  phenomena  of  creation  ;  and  he  need  lose  none  of  bis  reverence  for  th« 
supremacy  of  the  Divine  Law.—  Rural  Neva-Yorker. 

We  could  say  much  in  commendation  of  Prof.  Phin's  little  book.  An  Intelligent 
reader  can  hardly  fail  to  be  interested  in  it,  and  many  might  be  benefited.—  C*mtrg 
Oentleman. 

The  book  can  not  fail  to  Interest  even  those  who  do  not  fully  accept  tb«  theory  H 
Idvocates.—  Bottom  Journal  ofChemittry. 

It  is  a  new  scientific  view  of  the  matter.—  Phrenological  Journal. 

The  book,  although  not  large,  will  prove  exceedingly  interesting  to  all  wbo  have 
ever  directed  attention  to  this  matter,  and  contains  more  solid  and  iugge«tiv«  - 


than  many  voluminous  treatises  on  the  subject.—  Insurance  Monitor. 

The  work  is  ingenious  and  original,  and  present*  many  striking  suggestion*.—  JBMTV 
ean  Baptitt. 

We  believe  Prof.  Phin  has  started  upon  the  correct  basis,  and  hit  theory  U  mainly 
tenable.  His  views  are  presented  in  a  manner  which,  though  ten*,  U  easily  compr*- 
•ended.—  Paterton  Daily  Ovardian. 


A  New  and  TAve  Book  on  the  Gun. 

Just  Published.   Price  75  cents,  in  cloth. 

PLAIN    DIRECTIONS 

FOB  ACQUIRING  THE  ART   OF 

SHOOTING  ON  THE  WING, 

With  Useful  Hints  concerning  all  that  relates  to  Guns  and  Shooi 

;ng.  and  particularly  in  regard  to  the  art  of  Loading  so  a? 

to  Kill.     To  which  has  been  added    several  Valuable 

and  hitherto  Secret  Recipes,   of    Great   Practical 

Importance  to  the  Sportsman. 

BY  AN   OLD    GAMEKEEPER. 
Sem.  tree  vy  mail  on  receipt  of  price. 


Opinion f  of  the  frest. 

The  directions  are  so  plain  that  they  cannot  well  be  mistaken, 
and  they  are  expressed  in  the  fewest  possible  words.—  Turf,  Field 
and  Farm. 

Facing  the  title-page  is  one  of  the  handsomest,  best-executed 
woodcuts,  we  have  ever  seen,  it  is  entitled  "The  Wounded 
Snipe,"  and  almost  equals  a  steel  engraving.— Baptist  Union. 

Aom  its  pages  we  should  think  even  the  most  experienced 
sportsman  might  derive  some  new  ideas,  while  the  beginner  will 
Ind  it  an  invaluable  assistant. — Country  Gentleman. 

For  concise  instructions  as  to  how  to  shoot,  to  select,  load, 
5arry,  and  keep  a eun  in  order,  otc.,  it  cannot  be  surpassed.— 
Western  Rural. 

i.  pleasantly  written,  and,  it  seems,  to  us,  correct  and  practical 
treatise  on  the  sportsman's  art;  a  modest  little  book,  but  one  from 
the  reading  of  which  a  erood  deal  of  the  right  kind  of  knowlert^ 
is  to  be  gained.—  A^^non's  Journal 

A  practical  and  well-written  han.lbook,  especially  adapted  for 
ine  use  of  young  sportsmen,  as  it  j.ives  sensible  advice  on  the 
manipulation  of  firearms,  and  the  rules  and  etiquette  of  *he  field 
Scientific  American. 


RECENT    ISSUES. 
Collodio-Etching, 

A  Guide  to  Collodio-Etching.  By  Rev.  Benjamin 
Hartley.  Illustrated  by  the  Author.  12mo.,  Cloth, 
Neat,  -  .  $1.00. 

This  volume  gives  complete  ami  minute  instructions  for  one  of  tin- 
most  delightful  of  Amateur  Arts.  It  is  fully  illustrate!  l.y  wood-cuts 
of  all' the  apparatus  used  (which  is  very  simple  and  easily  mud-  . 
and  also  by  actual  photo  prints  of  the  etchings  themselves. 


Scientific  Experiments. 

Easy  Experiments  in  Chemistry  and  Natural  Philoso- 
phy. For  Educational  Institutions  of  all  Grades,  and 
for  Private  Students.  By  G.  Dallas  Lind,  Author 
of  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  Country  Schools,"  and 
"Normal  Outlines  of  the  Common  School  Branches." 
Paper,  -  40  cents. 

This  book,  besides  being  a  valuable  guide  fur  the  teacher  am! 
studeut,  will  afford  scientific  amusement  sufficient  to  brighten  the 
evenings  of  a  whole  winter. 


The  Builder's  Guide  and  Estimator's  Price  Book. 

Being  a  Compilation  of  Current  Prices  of  Lumber, 
Hardware,  Glass,  Plumbers'  Supplies,  Paints,  Slates. 
Stones,  Limes,  Cements.  Bricks,  Tin,  and  other  Building 
Materials;  also,  Prices  of  Labor,  and  Cost  of  Performing 
the  Several  Kinds  of  Work  Required  in  Building.  To- 
gether with  Prices  of  Doors,  Frames.  Sashes.  Stairs. 
Mouldings,  Newels,  and  other  Maehine  \\'"H<.  T.I  -vhieh 
is  appended  a  large  number  of  Building  Kules,  Data. 
Tables,  and  Useful  Memoranda,  WITH  a  tittoMMT]  M 
Architectural  and  Building  Terms.  By  Fred.  T.  Hodg- 
son, Editor  of  "The  Builder  and  Wood-Worker," 
Author  of  "The  Steel  Square  and  Its  Uses."  etc.,  etc. 
.,  Cloth,'  -  - 


Celestial  Objects  for  Common  Telescopes. 

By  the  Rev.  T.  W.  Webb,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S.  Fourth  Edi- 
tion, Revised  and  Greatly  Enlarged.  Fully  Illustrated 
with  Engravings  and  a  large  Map  of  the  Moon. 

Cloth,  -  -       $3.00 

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that  owns  even  the  commonest  kind  of  a  telescope  can  afford  to  do 
without  it 

"  Many  things,  deemed  invisible  to  secondary  instruments,  are 
plain  enough  to  one  who '  knows  how  to  see  them.'  "—SMYTH. 

"  When  an  object  is  once  discerned  by  a  superior  power,  an  inferior 
one  will  suffice  to  see  it  afterwards."— STB.  W.  HEKSCHEL. 

Chemical  History  of  the  Six  Days  of  Creation. 

By  John  Phin,  Editor  of  the  "  American  Journal  of 
Microscopy  "  and  the  "  Young  Scientist." 

12  mo.,  Cloth,  -  75  cents. 

In  this  volume  an  attempt  is  made  to  trace  the  evolution  of  our 
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void,"  and  existing  in  "darkness,"  or  with  an  entire  absence  of  the 
manifestations  of  the  physical  forces,  to  the  condition  in  which  it  was 
fitted  to  become  the  habitation  of  man.  While  the  statements  and 
conclusions  are  rigidly  scientific,  it  gives  some  exceedingly  novel 
views  of  a  rather  hackneyed  subject. 

Ponds  and  Ditches. 

A  Work  on  Pond  Life  and  Kindred  Objects.    By  M.  C. 

Cooke,  M.A.,  LL.D.    Cloth,  12mo.,         -  -    75  cents. 

This  is  a  most  interesting  volume  by  a  well-known  author  and 

microscopist.     It  is  very  freely  illustrated  with  engravings  of  the 

objects  usually  found  in  pond  water. 

Microscopical  Examination  of  Drinking  Water. 

A  Guide  to  the  Microscopical  Examination  of  Drinking 
Water.    By  J.  D.  McDonald. 
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How  to  Put  Up  a  Lightning  Rod. 

Plain  Directions  for  the  Construction  and  Erection  of 
Lightning  Hods.  By  John  Phin,  C.E.,  editor  of  the 
"Young  Scientist,"  author  of  "Chemical  History  of  the 
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that  will  afford  perfect  protection,  and  that  will  not  infringe  any  patent. 
Every  owner  of  a  house  or  barn  ought  to  procure  a  copy. 

Lectures  in  a  Workshop. 

By  T.  P.  Pemberton,  formerly  Associate  Editor  of  the 
"Technologist;"  Author  of  "The  Student's  Illustrated 
Guide  to  Practical  Draughting."  With  an  appendix  con- 
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dull  sermons  or  dry  mathematics,  but  a  live,  readable  book.     The 
papers   by  Whitworth,   now  first  made  accessible  to  the  American 
reader,  form  the  basis  of  our  modern  systems  of  accurate  work. 

Mechanical  Draughting  for  Self-Taught  Students. 

The  Student's  Illustrated  Guide  to  Practical  Draught- 
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Mechanics,  Apprentices,  and  Students  at  Engineering 
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demerits  and  Glue. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Preparation  and  Use  of  all 
Kinds  of  Cements,  Glue,  and  Paste.  By  John  Phin, 
Editor  of  the  "Young  Scientist"  and  the  "American 
Journal  of  Microscopy." 

Stiff  Covers,      -       -  -    25  cents. 

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representing  the  latest  developments  of  science.  Every  mechanic 
and  householder  will  find  the  volume  on  Cements  of  almost  everyday 
use.  It  contains  nearly  200  recipes  for  the  preparation  of  cements  for 
almost  every  conceivable  purpose. 

The  Amateur's  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Information. 

For  the  Workshop  and  the  Laboratory.  Second  Edition. 
Greatly  Enlarged.  Neatly  Bound,  -  15  cents. 

This  is  a  handy  little  book,  containing  just  the  information  needed 
by  Amateurs  in  the  Workshop  and  Laboratory.  Directions  for 
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ing, Brazing,  Lacquering,  Bronzing,  Staining  and  Polishing  Wood. 
Tempering  Tools,  Cutting  and  Working  Glass,  Varnishing,  Silvering, 
Gilding,  Preparing  Skins,  etc.,  etc. 

The  New  Edition  contains  extended  directions  for  preparing  PoiLsh- 
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tions for  rendering  ladies'  dresses  incombustible,  etc.  There  has  also 
been  added  a  very  large  number  of  new  and  valuable  receipts. 

Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements. 

Embracing  all  those  which  are  Most  Important  in  Dy- 
namics, Hydraulics,   Hydrostatics,   Pneumatics,    Steam 
Engines,  Mill  and  Other  Gearing,  Presses,  Horology  and 
Miscellaneous  Machinery;    and  including  Many  Move- 
ments never  before  published,  and  several  of  which  have 
only  recently  come  into  use.    By  Henry  T.  Brown,  editor 
of  the  "American  Artisan."    Eleventh  Edition.     $1.00 
This  work  is  a  perfect  Cyclopaedia  of  Mechanical  Inventions,  which 
are  here  reduced  to  first  principles,  and  classified  so  as  to  be  readily 
available.    Every  mechanic  that  hopes  to  be  more  than  a  rule-of- 
thumb  worker  ought  to  have  a  copy. 


The  Engineer's  Slide  Rule  and  Its  Applications. 

A  Complete  Investigation  of  the  Principles  upon  which 
the  Slide  Rule  is  Constructed,  together  with  the  Method 
of  its  Application  to  all  the  Purposes  of  the  Pni«-ti,-ai 
Mechanic.  By  William  Toukes.  -  -  23  cents. 

Rhymes  of  Science :   Wise  and  Otherwise. 

By  O.  W.  Holmes,  Bret  Harte,  Ingoklsby,  Prof.  Forbes, 

Prof.   J.  W.  McQ.  Raiikine,  Hon.  R.  W.  Raymond,  and 

others.    With  Illustrations.    Cloth,  Gilt  Title,  50  cents. 

We  advise  all  our  readers  into  whose   souls  the  sunlight  of  fuu  ever 

enters  to  purchase  this  little  book.    "  Making  light  of  cereous  things  " 

has  been  said,  by  a  high  authority,  to  be  "  &wicked  profession."  but  tho 

genius  which  caii  balance  the  ponderosity  of  an  ichthyosaur  upon  tho 

ddieate  point  of  a  euphonious  rhyme,  or  bear  aloft  a  bulky  lepto- 

rhyncus  on  the  sparkling  foam  of  a  soul-stirring  love  ditty,  is  worthy — 

worthy  of  a  purchaser.—  Philadelphia  Medical  News. 

Instruction  in  the  Art  of  Wood  Engraving. 

A  Manual  of  Instruction  in  the  Art  of  Wood  Engraving; 
with  a  Description  of  the  Necessary  Tools  and  API  >arat  us, 
and  Concise  Directions  for  their  Use;  Explanation  of 
the  Terms  Used,  and  the  Methods  Employed  for  Pro- 
ducing the  Various  Classes  of  Wood  Engravings.  By 
S.  E.  Fuller.  Fully  Illustrated  with  Engravings  by  the 
author,  separate  sheets  of  engravings  for  transfer 
and  practice  being  added.  New  Edition,  N-atly 
Bound,  ....  30  cents. 


What  to  Do  in  Case  of  Accident. 

What  to  Do  and  How  to  Do  It  in  Case  of  Acrid. -nt.    A 
Book  for  Everybody.    12  mo.,  Cloth,  Gilt  Title,  50  cents. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  books  ever  publishi-d.  It  t.-i 
what  to  do  in  case  of  a<--i.|,-!,ts.  su.'ti  as  S.-vtv  Cut*.  Sprain*.  l>M.»-:i- 
tions,  Broken  Bones.  Burns  with  Fire.  Scalds.  Hums  with  r,,iT,,-iv.! 
rh.-mi.-als,  Sunstroke.  Suffocation  by  Foul  Air.  Hanging.  Drowning. 
Frost-Bite,  Fainting,  Stings.  Bites.  Starvation.  Lightning.  RoimM, 
Accidents  from  Machinery  and  from  th-  Falling  of  Scaffolding,  (iun- 
shot  Wounds,  etc..  etc.  It  ought  tofe  in  ••vry  h-.ii.s.-.  f,,r  y.ung  ami 
old  are  liable  to  accident,  and  the  directions  given  in  this  book  might 
be  tho  means  of  saving  many  a  valuable  life. 


A  mew  Book  for  Bee-Keepers. 

A  Dictionary  of  Practical  Apiculture,  giving  the  correct  mean- 
ing of  nearly  Five  Hundred  Terms,  according  to  the  usage  of 
the  best  writers.  Intended  as  a  Guide  to  Uniformity  of  Ex- 
pression amongst  Bee-Keepers.  With  Numerous  Illustra- 
tions, Notes,  and  Practical  Hints.  By  John  Phin,  Author  of 
"How  to  Use  the  Microscope,"  etc.  Editor  of  the  "Young 
Scientist."  Price,  Cloth,  Gilt,  50  cts. 

This  work  gives  not  only  the  correct  meaning  of  five  hunch-ed  different 
•words,  specially  used  in  bee-keeping,  but  an  immense  amount  of  valuable 
information  under  the  different  headings.  The  labor  expended  upon  it  has 
been  very  great,  the  definitions  having  been  gathered  from  the  mode  in 
which  the  words  are  used  by  our  best  writers  on  bee-keeping,  and  from  the 
Imperial,  Richardson's,  Skeat's,  Webster's,  Worcester's  and  other  English 
Dictionaries.  The  technical  information  relating  to  matters  connected  with 
bee-keeping  has  been  gathei-ed  from  the  Technical  Dictionaries  of  Brando, 
Muspratt,  Ure,  Wagner,  Watts,  and  others.  Under  the  heads  Bee,  Oamb, 
Glucose,  Honey,  Race,  Species,  Sugar,  Wax  and  others,  it  brings  together  a 
large  number  of  important  facts  and  figures  which  are  now  scattered 
through  our  bee-literature,  and  through  costly  scientific  works,  and  are  not 
easily  found  when  wanted.  Here  they  can  be  referred  to  at  once  under  the 
proper  head. 

How  to  Become  a  Good  Mechanic. 

Intended  as  a  Practical  Guide  to  Self-taught  Men ;   telling 
What  to  Study  ;  What  Books  to  Use ;   How  to  Begin  ;  What 
Difficulties  will  be  Met;  How  to  Overcome  them.    In  a  Avord, 
how  to  carry  on  such  a  Course  of  Self-instruction  as  will  en- 
able the  Young  Mechanic  to  Else  from  the  Bench  to  some- 
thing higher.     Paper,       --       -       -       -       -       -15  cts. 

This  is  not  a  book  of  "  goody-goody  "  advice,  neither  is  it  an  advertise- 
ment of  any  special  system,  nor  docs  it  advocate  any  hobby.  It  gives  plain, 
practical  advice  in  regard  to  acquiring  that  knowledge  which  alone  can 
enable  a  young  man  engaged  in  any  profession  or  occupation  connected 
witli  the  industrial  arts  to  attain  a  position  higher  than  that  of  a  mere 
workman. 

The  Horse. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Horse  and  his  Diseases.  By  J.  B.  Kendall, 
M.D.  76  Engravings.  Paper, 20  cts. 

A  Treatise  giving  an  index  of  diseases,  and  the  symptoms;  cause  and 
treatment  of  each,  a  table  giving  all  the  principal  drugs  used  for  the  horse, 
with  the  ordinary  dose,  effects  and  antidote  when  a  poison ;  a  table  with  an 
engraving  of  the  horse's  teeth  at  different  ages,  with  rules  for  telling  the 
age  of  the  horse;  a  valuable  collection  of  recipes,  and  much  valuable  in- 
formation. •» 


Section  Cutting. 

A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Preparation  and  Mounting  a. 
^Sections  for  the  Microscope ;  Special  Prominence  being 
^iven  to  the  Subject  of  Animal  Sections  By  Sylvester 
Jfarsh.  Beprinted  from  the  London  edition.  With 
Illustrations.  12mo.,  Cloth,  Gilt  Title.  -  75  cents. 

This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  thorough  treatise  extant;  upon  sectiot 
cutting  in  all  its  details.  The  American  edition  has  been  greatlj 
enlarged  by  valuable  explanatory  notes,  and  also  by  extended  direc- 
tions, illustrated  with  engravings,  for  selecting  and  sharpening 
knives  and  razors. 

A  Book  for  Beginners  with  the  Microscope. 

Being  an  abridgment  of  "  Practical  Hints  on  the  Selection 
and  Use  of  the  Microscope."  By  John  Phin.   Fully  illus- 
trated, and  neatly  and  strongly  bound  in  boards.    30  cts. 
This  book  was  prepared  for  the  use  of  those  who,  having  no  know- 
ledge of  the  use  of  the  microscope,  or,  indeed,  of  any  scientific  appar- 
atus, desire  simple  and  practical  instruction  in  the  best  methods  ol 
managing  the  instrument  and  preparing  objects. 

How  to  Use  the  Microscope. 

"  Practical  Hints  on  the  Selection  and  Use  of  the  Micro- 
scrope."  Intended  for  Beginners.  By  John  Phin, 
Editor  of  the  "American  Journal  of  Microscopy." 
Fourth  Edition.  Greatly  enlarged,  with  over  80  engrav- 
ings in  the  text,  and  6  full-page  engravings,  printed  on 
heavy  tint  paper.  12mo.,  cloth,  gilt  title,  -  $1.00 

The  Microscope. 

By  Andrew  Boss.  Fully  Illustrated.  12mo.,  Cloth, 
Gilt  Title.  75  cents. 

This  is  the  celebrated  article  contributed  by  Andrew  Roes  to  the 
"Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  and  quoted  so  frequently  by  writere  on  the 
Microscope.  Carpenter  and  Hogg,  in  the  last  editions  of  their  works 
on  the  Microscope,  and  Brooke,  in  his  treatise  on  Natural  Philoso- 
phy, all  refer  to  this  article  as  tho  best  source  for  full  and  H.-ar 
information  in  regard  to  the  principles  upon  which  tin-  in««l>Tii 
achromatic  Microscope  is  constructed.  It  should  he  in  the  library 
of  every  person  to  whom  the  Microscope  Is  more  than  a  toy.  I*.  It 
written  in  simole  language,  free  from  abstruse  technicalltiee. 


The  Microscopisfs  Annual  for  1879. 

Contains  List  of  all  the  Microscopical  Societies  in  the 
country,  with  names  of  officers,  days  of  meeting,  etc. ; 
etc. ;  Alphabetical  and  Classified  Lists  of  all  the  Manu- 
.foeturers  of  Microscopes  and  Objectives,  Dissecting  Ap- 
paratus, Microscopic  Objects,  Materials  for  Microscopists, 
in  Europe  and  America,  etc.,  etc. ;  Postal  Kates,  Rules 
and  Regulations,  prepared  expressly  for  microscopists ; 
Weights  and  Measures,  with  tables  and  rules  for  the  con- 
version of  different  measures  into  each  other;  Custom 
Duties  and  Regulations  in  regard  to  Instruments  and 
Books ;  Value  of  the  Moneys  of  all  Countries  in  IT.  S. 
Dollars ;  Value  of  the  Lines  on  Nobert's  Test  Plates ; 
Table  of  Moller's  Probe  Platte,  with  the  number  of  lines 
to  inch  on  the  several  diatoms,  etc.,  etc. ;  Focal  Value 
of  the  Objectives  of  those  makers  who  Number  their 
Objectives  (Hartnack,  Nachet,  etc.) ;  Focal  Value  of  the 
Eye-pieces  of  different  makers;  Magnifying  Power  of 
Eye-pieces  and  Objectives,  etc.,  etc.  The  whole  form- 
ing an  indispensable  companion  for  every  working  micro- 
scopist.  Limp  Cloth,  Gilt  25  cent*. 

Microscope  Objectives. 

The  Angular  Aperture  of  Microscope  Objectives.  By 
Dr.  George  E.  Blackham.  8vo.,  Cloth.  Eighteen  full 
page  illustrations  printed  on  extra  fine  paper.  $1.25. 
Sold  only  by  Subscription. 

This  is  the  elaborate  paper  on  Angular  Aperture,  read  by  Dr. 
Blackham  before  the  Microscopical  Congress,  held  at  Indianapolis, 

Kutzing  on  Diatoms.— Nearly  ready. 

The  Siliceous  Shelled  Bacillarue  or  Diatornaceae ;  the 
History  of  their  Discovery  and  Classification ;  their  Dis- 
tribution, Collection,  and  Life-History.  By  Friedrich 
Traugott  Kutzing.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Prof. 
Hamilton  L.  Smith,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.  12mo.,  Cloth, 
Gilt,  ...  50  cents. 


FOURTH  EDITION.  Greatly  Enlarged,  •witk  over  80  illustrations  in  the  Ttxt 
aud(>  full  page  Engravings,  printed  on  Heavy  Tint  Paper.  i  Vol.  \into.,  240 
p.tges.  Neatly  Bound  in  Cloth,  Gilt  Title.  Price$i.ao. 

HOW  TO  USE  THE  MICROSCOPE. 

A   SIMPLE   AND   PRACTICAL   BOOK,    INTENDED    KOK   BEGINNERS. 

BY  JOHN  PHIN, 

Editor  of  "  The  American  Journal  of  Microscopy." 

CONDENSED  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

THE  MICROSCOPE.— What  it  Is;  What  it  Does;  Different  Kinds  of  Microscopes; 
I'rinciples  of  its  Construction  ;  Names  of  the  Different  Parts. 

SIMPLE  MICROSCOPES.— Hand  Magnifiers;  Doublets;  Power  of  Two  or  More 
Lenses  When  Used  Together;  Stanhope  Lens;  Coddington  Lens;  Achromatic 
Doublets  and  Triplets  ;  Twenty-five  Cent  Microscopes— and  How  to  Make  Them  ; 
Penny  Microscopes,  to  Show  Eels  in  Paste  and  VTnegar. 

DISSECTING  MICROSCOPES.— Essentials  of  a  Good  Dissecting  Microscope. 

COMPOUND  MICROSCOPES.— Cheap  Foreign  Stands;  The  Ross  Model;  The  Jackson 
Model;  The  Continental  Model;  The  New  American  Model;  Cheap  American 
Stands;  The  Binocular  Microscope;  The  Binocular  Eye-piece;  The  Inverted  Micro- 
scope; Lithological  Microscopes;  The  Aquarium  Microscope;  Microscopes  for 
Special  Purposes;  "Class"  Microscopes. 

OBJECTIVES.— Defects  of  Common  Lenses;  Spherical  Aberration;  Chromatic  do.  ; 
Corrected  Objectives:  Defining  Power ;  Achromatism;  Aberration  r ,  Form  ;  Flatne.v. 
of  Field;  Angular  Aperture;  Penetrating  Power  :  Working  Distan  e;  Immersion  and 
"Homogeneous"  Lenses;  Duplex  Fronts;  French  Triplets,  etc.,  fie. 

TESTING  OBJECTIVES.  — General  Rules;  Accepted  Standards— Diatoms,  Ruled 
Lines,  Artificial  Star;  Podura;  Nobert's  Lines;  Moller's  Probe  Platte,  etc.,  etc. 

SELECTION  OF  A  MICROSCOPE  — Must  be  Adapted  to  Requirements  and  Skill  of 
User;  Microscopes  for  Botany;  For  Physicians;  For  Students. 

ACCESSORY  APPARATUS. — Stage  Forceps;  Forceps  Carrier;  Plain  Slides;  Concave 
Slides;  Watch- Glass  Holder;  Animalcule  Cage;  Zoophyte  Trough:  The  Weber  Slide; 
The  Cell-Trough;  The  Compressorium ;  Gravity  Compressonum;  Growing  Slides; 
Frog  Plate;  Table;  Double  Nose-piece. 

ILLUMINATION. — Sun-Light;   Artificial  Light — Candles,  Gas,  Lamps,  etc.,  etc. 

ILLUMINATION  OF  OPAQUE  OBJECTS.— Bulls-Eye  Condenser;  Side  Reflector;  The 
Lieberkuhn;  The  Parabolic  Reflector;  Vertical  Illuminators. 

ILLUMINATION  OF  TRANSPARENT  OBJECTS. — Direct  and  Reflected  Light;  Axial  or 
Central  Ligb  ;  Oblique  Light ;  The  Achromatic  Condenser;  The  Webster  Condenser, 
and  How  to  Use i»;  Wenham's  Reflex  Illuminator,  and  How  to  Use  it;  TheWenham 
Prism;  The  "Half-Button;"  The  Woodward  Illuminator;  Tones'  Illuminating 
Traverse  Lens;  The  Spot  Lens;  The  Parabolic  Illuminator;  Polarized  Light. 

How  TO  USE  THE  MICROSCOPE. — General  Rules;  Hints  to  Beginners. 

How  TO   USE  OBJECTIVES  OF   LARGE  APERTURE.— Collar-Correction,  etc. 

CARE  OF  THE  MICROSCOPE. — Should  be  Kept  Covered;  Care  of  Objectives:  Pre- 
cautions  to  be  Used  when  Corrosive  Vapors  and  Liquids  are  Employed;  To  Protect 
ih  Objectives  from  Vapors  which  Corrode  Glass;  Cleaning  the  Objectives;  Cleaning 
th  Brass  Work, 

COLLECTING  OBIECTS.— Whereto  Find  Objects;  What  to  Look  for ;  How  to  Capture 
Them. 

THE  PREPARATION  AND  EXAMINATION  OF  OBJF.CTS.— Cutting  Thin  Sections  of 
Sof  Substances;  Valentine's  Knife;  Sections  of  Wood  and  Bone:  Improved  Section 
Cutter;  Sections  of  Rock  ;  Knives;  Scissors;  Needles;  Dissecting  Pans  and  Dishes; 
Dissecting  Microscopes;  Separation  of  Deposits  from  Liquids;  Preparing  Whole 
Insects;  Feet,  Eye-,  Tongues,  Wings,  etc.,  of  Insects;  Use  of  Chemical  Tests:  Liquid* 
for  Moistening  Objects;  Refractive  Powers  of  Different  Liquids:  lod-Serum  ;  Artifci*1 
..od-Serum;  Cover*  for  Keeping  Out  Dust;  Errors  in  Microscopic  Observations. 

PRESERVATIVE  PROCESSES.— General  Principles;  Preservative  Media 
.APPARATUS  FOR  MOUNTING  OUJKCTS.—  Slides;  Covers;  Cells;   1  urn-Tables,  eu.. 
A  CEMENTS  AND  VARNISHES.— General  Rules  for  Using. 

MOUNTING  OBJECTS.— Mounting  Transparent  Objects  Dry:  in  Balsam:  in  Liquid* 
Whole  Insects:  How  to  Get  Rid  of  Air-Bubbles:  Mounting  Opaque  Objects. 

FINISHING  THB  SLIDES.— Cabinets;  Maltwood  Finder ;  Microscopical  Fallaciev 


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London  Lancet  for  1885. 

A  Monthly  Journal  of  British  and  Foreign  Medicine,  Physiology,  Surgery, 
Chemistry,  Criticism,  Literature  and  News. 

CONDUCTED  BY 

JAMES  G.  WAKLEY,  M.D.,  M.R.C.S.  (Editor  since  1855),  and 
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EF1  The  American  Edition,  a  *  n  o  \*  published  by 
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THE  LANCET  is  the  oldest  and  most  Practical  Medical  Journal  published  in  the 
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FOR 

Fret  or  Scroll  Sawyers, 


MR.  F.  "f.  HODGSON,  whose  admirable  series  of  articles  on  the  USE  OF  THE 
SCROLL  SAW  are  now  in  course  of  publication  in  the  YOUNG  SCIENTIST,  has  pre- 
pared for  us  a  series  of 


*  1:1  i:  •VM:  i:  > 

of  which  the  following  is  a  list  : 

No.  i.—  This  shows  one  side,  back,  and  bottom,  of  a  pen  rack.  It  may  be  made 
of  ebony,  walnut,  or  other  dark  wood. 

No.  2.—  Design  for  inlaying  drawer  fronts,  table  tops,  box  lids,  and  many  other 
things.  It  is  a  sumach  leaf  pattern. 

No.  3.  —  Design  (or  a  thermometer  stand.  It  may  be  made  of  any  hard  wood  or 
alabaster.  The  method  of  putting  together  is  obvious. 


No.  4. — This  shows  a  design  for  a  lamp  screen.  The  open  part  may  be  covered 
"th  tinted  silk,  or  other  suitable  material,  with  some  appropriate  device  worked  on 
th  the  needle,  or,  if  preferred,  ornaments  may  be  painted  on  the  silk,  etc. 


No.  5. — A  case  for  containing  visiting  cards.       Will  look  best  made  of  white  holly. 

No.  6. — A  placque  stand,     it  may  be  made  of  any  kind  of  dark  or  medium  wood. 

No.  7. — A  design  for  ornaments  suitable  for  a  window  cornice.  It  should  \x 
made  of  black  walnut,  and  overlaid  on  some  light  colored  hard  wood. 

No.  8 — A  design  for  a  jewel  casket.  This  will  l>e  very  pretty  made  of  white  holly 
and  lined  with  blue  velvet.  It  also  looks  well  made  of  ebony  lined  with  crimson. 

No.  9.— Frame.       Will  look  well  made  of  any  dark  wood. 

No.  10. — Frame.  Intended  to  be  made  in  pairs.  Looks  well  made  of  white  holly, 
with  leaves  and  flowers  painted  on  wide  stile. 

No.  ii. — Horseshoe.  Can  be  made  of  any  kind  of  wood  and  used  for  a  pen  rack. 
When  decorated  with  gold  and  colors,  looks  very  handsome. 

No.  12. — Design  for  a  hinge  strap.  If  made  of  black  walnut,  and  planted  on  a 
white  or  oaken  door,  will  look  well. 

No.  13. — Design  for  a  napkin  ring.     May  be  made  of  any  kind  of  hard  w>-od. 

No.  14. — Hinge  strap  for  doors  with  narrow  stiles 

No.  15. — Centre   ornament  for  panel. 

No.  16. — Corner  ornament  for  panel. 

No.  17. — Key-hole  escutcheon. 

These  designs  we  have  had  photo-lithographed  and  printed  on  good  paper,  so  that 
the  outlines  are  sharp,  and  the  opposite  sides  of  each  design  symmetrical.  Common 
designs  are  printed  from  coarse  wooden  blocks,  and  are  rough  and  unequal,  so  thai 
it  is  often  impossible  to  make  good  work  from  them. 

The  series  embraces  over  forty  different  pieces,  and  designs  of  equal  quality  camvot 
be  had  for  less  than  five,  ten  or  fifteen  cents  each.  We  offer  them  for  twenty  riv.- 
cents  for  the  set,  which  is  an  average  price  of  only  one  cent  and  a  half  each. 

Mailed  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  price. 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLICATION  CO., 

New  York. 


REDUCED  FIGURES  OF 

NEW    DESIGNS    FOR    FRET    OR    SCROLL    SAWYERS. 

SIZE  OF  SHEETS   28   BY   22    INCHES. 

\For  description  see  preceding  page.) 


TM 

5670 
H6? 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

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